L 10: Social Psychology

First Impressions

- the initial judgement/impression that is formed of someone when you first meet them
- we form schemas/mental representations of them quickly and automatically from the little information we have of them at the moment

Primacy Effect

- we remember the stuff that is presented to us first

- in the context of impressions, you remember the first traits/characteristics of a person you are presented with and won't remember the later ones as well. This can influence whether you form a positive or negative impression of that person

Factors that limit accuracy of first impressions

- False Consensus: We assume others are just like us and hold the same attitudes/beliefs as us
- Confirmation Bias: we only see what we want to see (that confirms our first impression) and ignore everything else that might contradict the first impression
- Impression Management: we don't present our true selves, instead trying to present the best version of ourselves
- Transference: projecting the traits of someone we know onto someone we don't know
-Stereotypes: beliefs about the characteristics of someone who belongs to a certain group

Impression Management

Ways we employ to influence other people's impression of us. Trying to appear/advertise your best traits/skills and mask the ones we don't want others to see so that they form a favourable impression.

False Consensus Effect

Believing everyone's attitudes/beliefs are just like yours and overestimating that.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to see only what confirms your first impression while ignoring everything else including the things that don't line up with beliefs

Accuracy of first impressions

is absolute crap. First impression are often formed by faces. When we track emotional expression, we use that to judge character, which is not a good way to form an impression because expression can always change.

We can infer character/personality from other sources, but is still not very accurate. We may only be able to accurately predict what people are generally like. You can also gain more accuracy from behavioral cues.

Attribution Theory

The causes that we assign to explain something (behaviour/event/outcome etc.)

Dispositional/ Internal Attribution

Someone is doing that because of internal or dispositional causes.

Ex. Traits, characteristics, attitudes, beliefs, skills, intentions

Situational/External attribution

Someone is doing that because of the external situation.

Ex. Weather, circumstances, accidents, situational context

Self-serving bias

We attribute our successes to internal causes but attribute our failures to external causes.

Why? -> we have a need to feel good about ourselves and maintain positive view of ourselves

Fundamental Attribution Error

When we try to explain other people's behaviour, we attribute it to internal/disposition causes. We overestimate the impact of internal disposition and underestimate the impact of the external situation.

Individualistic Society

In these societies, they value independence and autonomy

Collectivistic Society

In these societies, they value interdependence, harmony, working together etc. People from these cultures do not make as much FAE as they take into account both internal/external causes of behaviour

Stereotypes

beliefs/schema/associations about a group and their traits/characteristics. They are automatic associations/mental representations and can be positive/neg. They are NOT judgements.

Can be learned from experience/people around you/culture OR can be perpetuated by experiences/media

They can be accurate, inaccurate, or represent a sliver of truth

Prejudice

these are attitudes or affective responses toward a group and its individual members. They are valuence (good/bad) judgements, hence they be positive or negative.

Discrimination

behaviour directed against people because of group membership

Ex. not hiring someone, excluding someone, paying them less, because of their group membership

Social Categorization

Humans categorize people into different groups based on a shared characteristic
-> things like race/gender/height/beliefs/causes/hobbies etc.

By categorizing, we stereotype. But we do this because is saves us time & energy, simplifies our world, and is useful when we do not have other information to rely on

In-group favoritism

All the groups we belong to are called this. When we favor our own group is is called this.

Fuels prejudice

Out-group derogation

All the groups we don't belong to are this. When we direct hate towards this group, it is called this

fuels prejudice

Out-group homogeneity effect

This is when we categorize the out-group as all the same while considering our in group as unique/diverse.

This happens because we have more contact and exposure with the in-group then outgroup

symbolic racism

symbolic: the tendency to redirect one's prejudice toward a racial/ethnic group to the policies that might benefit the group
Ex. a non-Muslim country passes laws to restrict the places where hijabs can be worn

Robber's Cave Study

This study aimed to examine how prejudice and discrimination might develop and how it might be reduced.

-> Boys split into two groups, the Eagles and Rattlers and have to compete with each other for limited resources, eventually developed hostile attitudes/prejudice against each other. Prejudice was expressed verbally/physically. This resulted in behaviour like burning flags and ransacking cabins.

-> To reduce this prejudice/discrimination, contact alone was not enough to reduce tension.
-> Mutual independence where the boys worked towards a common superordinate goal like fixing a water tank, helped ease tension

Contact hypothesis

the theory that prejudice can be reduced by friendly/co-operative contact/interactions between members of both groups as they work towards a common goal as equals

Gordon Allport suggested that these elements can help reduce prejudicial attitudes
- working together
- as equals
- toward a common goal AND
- in a environment where those in authority support social change

Realistic Conflict Theory

when prejudice and conflict arises from competition for scarce resources among groups

Social Identity Theory

when a person's self-concept and self-esteem derives from status and accomplishments of various groups to which they belong to

-> humans naturally want their groups to be the best so we favourite those of our own group opposed to other groups. We have a positive attitude towards our own group

Explicit/Implicit attitudes

these attitudes are explicitly reported about something. They can be easily updated and are measured using self-questionnaires. however, it is easy for people to report something that is not the truth as these attitudes are shaped by our values/social norms/beliefs

these attitudes are automatic associations and occur without your awareness. Often learned through repeated exposure through something. They are not easy to update and can be measured through facial expressions, body language, and Implicit Association Tests (which uses reaction times)

Elaboration likelihood model

is a dual-processing theory of persuasion that states that attitudes can be changed by two ways: a central route and peripheral route

The central route relies on paying attention to the argument/ assessing strengths/weaknesses, thinking deeply with high ability and motivation

The peripheral route relies on superficial cues and low effect processing. People are swayed by surface-level features and automatic associations. Occurs with low ability or motivation

Cognitive Dissonance theory

Based on the idea that we want cognitive consistency where our mental state in which beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours are compatible. When there is a discrepency between these, we feel tension and dissonance.

We feel a need to reduce it so we either
- change our behaviour
-change our attitude/belief
- change perception of original behaviour

Post-decision dissonance

occurs when we have to give up an option that we have a positive attitude toward. To reduce dissonance, we focus on the negative aspects of the option we didn't choose and elevate the positive aspects of the option we did choose

Social influence

the way people are affected by the real and imagined presence of others

- can be automatic with reflex-like behaviours
- automatic mimicry -> chameleon effect - someone does something and you copy them
- the function of chameleon effect is to ease social interaction and make it more enjoyable

Social norm

patterns of behavior/traditions/beliefs and preferences that are accepted and reinforced by others and influence our behaviour

they can vary across context, culture, and time

violating these can result in awkwardness, hostility or ostracism

Conformity

process where people mimic/adopt behaviours, beliefs and preferences of those around them/ change in accordance to group norms

Informational social influence

pressure to conform to others' actions and beliefs to behave correctly and gain an understanding of the world

Normative social influence

pressure to conform to fit in with others and gain approval from those around us and avoid disapproval

Social facilitation

an enhancement of dominant response (most likely behavioural response) because of the presence of other people when performing a task.

When the task is easy, we perform better but when the task is difficult, we perform worse and make mistakes

Social loafing

the tendency to put less effort in a task when you are doing it with others opposed to alone

Obedience

changing our behaviour in response to commands by perceived authority figures

Milgram Studies

- Inspired by the Holocaust, Stanley Milgram tested the influence of authority on average people in carrying out cruel acts
- People were brought to the lab at Yale and were paired with someone, the learner.
- The participant had to read a list of word pairs to the learner in another room with the task of memorization
- Each time they got it incorrect, the participant had to administer a shock, which increased in intensity
- The experimenter would tell the participant to go on
- The results were that 65% of men & women obeyed the commands of the experimenter even if they were concerned for the learner

Factors to consider:
- participants were uncomfortable and distressed
- many wanted to stop
- encouragement by experiment
- told that they were not responsible for what happened

Replicating Milgram: Burger Study

these studies replicated the Milgram experiment a few decades later. They found that 70% of participants continued beyond the 150v, showing that there is still obedience to authority

Instrumental Aggression

using aggression to achieve a goal/purpose

Hostile Aggression

using aggression to harm someone

Prosocial behaviour

actions that are aimed at assisting others towards their goals

Altruism

behaviors intended to benefit another without expectations of anything in return

Reciprocal altruism

we help others because we expect to be repaid in the long run

Norm of reciprocity

where people agree to help others because they have helped them in the past or they expect that other person will help them in the future

-> give and take rule -> I help you and you help me

People become dissatisfied when there is no reciprocation in return

Bystander effect (diffusion of responsibility, pluralistic ignorance, overcoming the effect)

is when people will not help someone if they are with others opposed to if they were alone

Pluralistic ignorance: people are all unaware of each other's attitudes/beliefs. So you look to each other for cues on what is happening; if no one does anything, you don't see it as an emergency

Diffusion of responsibility: when people assume that someone more qualified and better can help and probably is already helping

Mere exposure effect

being exposed to something/someone breeds familiarity thus breeding liking

Interpersonal attraction (factors)

- physical proximity, frequent close contact
-other people share/validate our view of the world or share our life experience
- similar background/attitudes/values/ interests

Familiarity - people who are known to us
Reciprocity - we like those who like us
Physical Attractiveness

Halo effect

People who are good looking possess positive and desired qualities like intelligence, they have a good personality, they are good at things

Attachment theory

forming a bond between infants and their caregivers is extremely important to development. Infants rely on caretakers for a sense of security and to meet their needs. If one is deprived of this bond and attachment, development is delayed.

Through attachment theory, children develop schemas for relationships and how they function . These give rise to attachment styles.

Attachment styles

these are how one typically interacts with another close person. Adults develop attachment bonds with close others throughout life.


Secure:
- people feel worthy and view the other as trustworthy. Comfortable with intimacy. They have a positive view of self and others
Dismissive - avoidant
- a mistrust of others
- self-reliant and avoids intimacy
positive view of self and negative view of others

Anxious - ambivalent
- passionate but are prone to jealousy and anger because of anxiety that their partner will leave them. They are reluctant to become close/dependent on a partner to feel good about themselves
- desire closeness but fears rejection
- neg self view and pos self view of others

Fearful Avoidant
- distrusting of others
- want closeness, but fear rejection
- neg view of self and others

compliance

changing our behavior in response to direct requests

social learning

we learn aggressive behaviour by modelling it from others

we learn to be more or less aggressive via rewards and punishments - if aggressive behaviour is rewarded, we do it more etc.

-> BoBo Doll Studies (1960s, Bandura)