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When did Wilhelm Wundt Create his Lab?
1879 in Leipzig, Germany
What was Wilhelm Wundt’s methodology known as?
Introspection- a method in which individuals observe and reflect on their own conscious thoughts, feelings, and sensory experiences to gain insight into how the mind works.
Define Introspection
a method in which individuals observe and reflect on their own conscious thoughts, feelings, and sensory experiences to gain insight into how the mind works.
What are the 3 key features of introspection?
First-person Perspective: Only the individual can access their own thoughts and feelings.
Mentality: Focuses on internal mental states like thoughts, emotions, and beliefs.
Temporal proximity: Reflects on mental states close to the time they occur.
Define structuralism
A theory that breaks down mental processes into basic components (sensations, thoughts, and feelings) to understand the structure of the mind.
Define the nature of Wilhelm Wundt’s experiments
Wundt’s experiments were very systematic, standardised and controlled, so they are repeatable and reliable.
He ensured that extraneous variables were not a factor
What did Wilhelm Wundt achieve?
Wilhelm Wundt produced the first academic journal for psychological research and wrote the first textbook.
What is the key assumption of the behaviourist approach?
All behaviour is learned from the environment through classical and operant conditioning, rejecting the idea of innate factors or free will.
What is classical conditioning
Learning through association, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a reflex response (Pavlov’s dogs).
Explain classical conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus causes an unconditioned response
Neutral stimulus can become associated with unconditioned stimulus to evoke an unconditioned response, so the neutral stimulus then becomes a conditioned stimulus.
conditioned stimulus then generates a conditioned response.
Define operant conditioning
Learning through consequences, where behaviour is shaped by rewards (reinforcement) and punishments (Skinner’s rats).
What is positive reinforcement?
A behaviour is strengthened and encouraged by receiving a positive stimulus after the desired behaviour.
What is negative reinforcement
A behaviour is strengthened by removing an unpleasant stimulus following the desired behaviour.
What is Punishment
A behavior is weakened by applying an unpleasant consequence, discouraging repetition of the behavior.
What is extinction in conditioning?
The gradual weakening and disappearance of a learned behaviour when reinforcement is no longer given, or the conditioned stimulus no longer becoming associated with the conditioned response
What is the focus of behaviourism?
Focuses solely on observable behaviour, dismissing internal mental states like thoughts and emotions as irrelevant.
What are the strengths of behaviourism?
Strengths: Scientific, objective, and replicable.
What are the weaknesses of behaviourism?
Weaknesses: Ignores mental processes, reductionist, and overlooks biological influences.
Briefly describe pavlov’s experiment
Demonstrated classical conditioning with dogs, showing how a neutral stimulus (bell) could elicit a conditioned response (salivation) after being paired with food.
What is skinner’s box
An apparatus used by Skinner to study operant conditioning in animals, where pressing a lever led to food (positive reinforcement) or avoided a shock (negative reinforcement).
What is discrimination in conditioning?
In classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and respond only to the conditioned stimulus.
What is generalisation in conditioning?
In classical conditioning, when a conditioned response occurs to stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus.
What is the role of determinism in behaviourism?
Behaviourists argue that all behaviour is determined by environmental stimuli, meaning free will is an illusion.
what are some ethical issues around the behaviourist approach?
skinner box animals were kept in harsh, cramped conditions, and were deliberately not fed to be always hungry.
What does the Social Learning theory suggest?
suggests that learning occurs both directly, through conditioning, and indirectly through vicarious reinforcement.
what are the steps for vicarious reinforcement?
An observer identifies themselves with a desirable role model.
This role model displays or models a specific behaviour, which is imitated by the observer.
If the behaviour by the role model is rewarded, the behaviour is more likely to be imitated.
Therefore, the consequences of the observed behaviour are more important than observing the behaviour alone.
define a role model
A person with whom the observer identifies with.
(The role model is usually attractive, has high social status, is of a similar age and the same gender to the observer.)
define identification
The process by which an observer relates to/ associates themselves with a role model and aspires to become more like that role model.
what is vicarious reinforcement?
A type of indirect learning which occurs when an observer sees their role model being rewarded for displaying a certain behaviour.
The observer is then motivated to imitate this behaviour, in an effort to receive the same reward.
define mediational processes
Cognitive processes which mediate/intervene between stimulus and response.
name all 4 mediational processes
attention
retention
motor reproduction
motivation
Who founded the Social Learning theory?
Albert Bandura
What was Albert Bandura’s famous experiment?
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1961)
What happened in Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study?
36 boys and 36 girls, aged between 3 and 6 years old, were tested.
The children were exposed to aggressive models, hurting the doll. The children who watched the model be aggressive were more likely to be aggressive than the non-aggressive role model control group.
what is internal validity?
Internal validity refers to how accurately an experiment measures what it claims to measure. It ensures that changes in the dependent variable (DV) are caused by the manipulation of the independent variable (IV), not by confounding variables.
High internal validity is achieved through proper control of variables, random assignment, and minimizing bias.
What key finding did Bandura overlook in his research related to aggression?
Bandura overlooked that boys, compared to girls, exhibited significantly more imitative aggression, more aggressive gun play, and more non-imitative aggressive behavior.
Why might SLT be considered an incomplete explanation for gender differences in behavior?
Back: SLT may be incomplete as it does not account for biological and hormonal factors, such as testosterone levels, that influence gender-related behaviors.
Why does Bandura’s Bobo Doll study lack mundane realism?
The artificial setup may not reflect how children would act in real-life situations, where aggression is directed toward objects or people not meant to be struck.
How does SLT offer a more comprehensive explanation of human behavior compared to behaviorism?
SLT acknowledges the role of mediational processes, recognizing that human cognition and decision-making are more complex than animals’. It accounts for conscious insight into behavior, making it a better explanation of human behavior than behaviorism.
How does SLT demonstrate environmental determinism?
SLT focuses on learning from experience and ignores other biological or psychological factors, leading to environmental determinism—where behavior is seen as shaped entirely by the environment.
define mundane realism
Mundane realism refers to the extent to which the setting, materials, and procedures of a psychological study mirror real-life situations. High mundane realism enhances the ecological validity of the findings, making them more generalizable to everyday behaviour.
What does the cognitive approach argue?
It argues that internal processes can and should be studied scientifically.
What is the computer analogy
An analogy used to explain the brain by cognitive psychologist; it involves 3 stages:
input
storage
retrieval
what are 2 advantages of the cognitive approach?
It is nomothetic in approach & very controlled with lab experiments, high internal validity
It has real world application, with large contributions to AI, cures for depression and the emergence of cognitive neuroscience increases its validity
what are 2 disadvantages of the cognitive approach?
It can be theoretical and abstract at times, lacking mundane realism and external validity due to tests like word lists for memory not being reflective of real world memory.
It suffers for machine reductionism, likening humans to computers does not take into account the idea that human memory is affected by emotions, e.g. one remembers when they were very sad more vividly than when they felt neutral.
is the cognitive approach determinist or free will?
It is founded on soft determinism: behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors but we can also exert our free will at times.
define soft determinism
the idea that behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors but we can also exert our free will at times.
define hard determinism
all behaviour is determined by factors other than out will, such ass conditioning and genes.
what are some advantages of the social learning theory?
it recognises the role of mediational processes as the conscious and cognitive insight that humans have into their behaviour.
It has a real world application. SLT principles such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement can account for how children learn from the culture around them.
what are some disadvantages of the social learning theory
Bandura’s study may lack internal validity, due to not entirely investigating the effect of aggressive role models because the Bobo doll is specifically designed to be hit.
Social learning theory suggests that we learn from experience, and so ignores other biological or psychological factors, thus adopting environmental determinism.
what type of determinism is the social learning theory?
reciprocal determinism; we are not merely influenced by our external environment, but we exert influences upon it, through the behaviours we choose to perform, we still have free will.
define reciprocal determinism
we are not merely influenced by our external environment, but we exert influences upon it, through the behaviours we choose to perform, we still have free will.
what does the biological approach assume?
It believes that humans are biological organisms made up of physiological processes.
Therefore, all thoughts, ideas and cognitive processes must be biological in origin. This means that the mind ‘lives’ within the brain, and is not separate (as viewed by the cognitive approach).
how does the biological approach differ to the cognitive approach regarding mental processes?
The biological approach assumes all thoughts, ideas and cognitive processes must be biological in origin.
This means that the mind ‘lives’ within the brain, and is not separate (as viewed by the cognitive approach).
define concordance rates
the likelihood or probability that both individuals in a pair will exhibit the same trait or behaviour, especially when studying twins or family members.
What do concordance rates show?
They show if a behaviour has a genetic influence or an environmental influence.
What do high concordance rates show?
High concordance rates, especially in identical twins (monozygotic), suggest a strong genetic component for the trait being studied.
If monozygotic twins have higher concordance rates than dizygotic twins (fraternal), it indicates that genetics play a significant role.
what do low concordance rates show?
If concordance rates are not 100%, even in identical twins, this suggests that environmental factors also contribute to the development of the trait.
Lower concordance rates in dizygotic twins, siblings, or non-related individuals highlight the effect of shared environments.
define phenotype
The observable characteristics or traits of an organism, such as its physical appearance, behaviour, etc.
define genotype
The genetic makeup of an individual
define natural selection
Process where advantageous traits increase in prevalence within a population.
define evolution
The process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes 7 in heritable physical or behavioural traits
What are 4 strengths of the Biological Approach?
Scientific Basis:
Relies on objective research methods (e.g., experiments, MRI scans, brain imaging).
Understanding of Neurotransmitters:
Explains the role of neurotransmitters in behaviour and mental processes.
Genetic Influences:
Highlights genetic tendencies in shaping behaviours and personality traits.
Medical Advances:
Leads to effective biological treatments for mental health disorders such as depression
What are 3 weaknesses of the Biological Approach?
Reductionism:
Oversimplifies complex behaviors by attributing them solely to biological factors, doesn’t account for past experiences/ emotion.
Determinism:
Suggests behavior is preordained by genetics, undermining personal agency, e.g. one’s genes make them a criminal
This can be disproved as identical twins with the same genotype think & act different
What is the Conscious Mind in the Psychodynamic approach?
Definition: Contains thoughts and feelings we are currently aware of.
Characteristics:
Involves active thoughts, perceptions, and immediate awareness.
Responsible for decision-making and rational thinking.
Represents a small fraction of overall mental activity.
What is the Preconscious Mind in the Psychodynamic approach?
Definition: Holds thoughts and memories that can be accessed when needed.
Characteristics:
Acts as a bridge between the conscious and unconscious mind.
Contains information that can be recalled with effort (e.g., memories).
Can be brought into consciousness through reflection.
What is the unconscious Mind in the Psychodynamic approach?
Definition: Contains thoughts, memories, and desires not accessible to awareness.
Characteristics:
Houses repressed memories and unresolved conflicts.
Influences behavior and emotions unconsciously.
Revealed through dreams and Freudian slips (parapraxes) ; explored in psychoanalysis.
define a paraprax
minor errors in speech or action that are thought to be caused by unconscious wishes or attitudes.
what is the Id?
The primal part of the personality that seeks immediate gratification.
Characteristics:
Operates on the pleasure principle (seeks pleasure, avoids pain).
Contains basic instincts and desires (e.g., hunger, sex).
Lacks rationality; driven by impulse and desire.
babies are born with only the Id
What is the ego?
The rational part of the personality that mediates between the id and the superego.
Characteristics:
Operates on the reality principle (seeks realistic and socially acceptable ways to satisfy the id).
Balances desires of the id with moral constraints of the superego.
Involved in decision-making and problem-solving.
develops around 2 years old
what is the superego?
The moral component of personality that internalizes societal values and norms.
Characteristics:
Operates on the morality principle (judges actions as right or wrong).
Develops through socialisation, influenced by parents and society.
Strives for perfection, leading to feelings of guilt or pride; punishes ego for wrongdoings through guilt.
formed at the end of the phallic stage
what is the Interaction between Id, Ego, and Superego
The id demands immediate gratification, while the superego imposes moral standards.
The ego mediates between the two, striving to find realistic solutions that satisfy both desires and societal expectations. It does this through defence mechanisms.
Healthy personality involves a balance among all three components.
What is the Oral Stage?
Age Range: 0-1 year
Focus of Pleasure: Mouth (sucking, biting)
Key Experiences: Feeding, weaning
What can happen as a result of unresolved conflicts in the Oral Stage?
Mouth fixations, such as smoking & nail biting
What is the Anal Stage?
Age Range: 1-3 years
Focus of Pleasure: Anus, withholding and expelling faeces
Key Experiences:
Control over bowel movements and toilet training.
What can happen as a result of unresolved conflicts in the anal Stage?
Anal-retentive traits (perfectionism, orderliness) if toilet training is overly strict.
Anal-expulsive traits (messiness, disorganization) if training is too lenient.
What is the phallic stage?
Age Range: 3-6 years
Focus of Pleasure: Genitals
Key Experiences:
Development of sexual identity; Oedipus/Electra complex occurs (attraction to the opposite-sex parent).
What can happen as a result of unresolved conflicts in the phallic Stage?
Issues with authority and relationships if the Oedipus complex is unresolved.
Possible traits include vanity, recklessness, or difficulty in establishing romantic relationships.
What is the latency stage?
Age Range: 6-puberty
Focus of Pleasure: Sexual feelings are repressed.
Key Experiences:
Focus on social skills, friendships, and intellectual development.
What is the genital stage?
Age Range: Puberty onward
Focus of Pleasure: Genitals (mature sexual relationships)
Key Experiences:
Establishing mature sexual relationships and contributing to society.
What can happen as a result of unresolved conflicts in the genital Stage?
successful navigation leads to healthy relationships; failure can result in difficulties forming emotional and sexual connections.
What is the Oedipus complex?
An unconscious desire for his mother and jealousy toward his father.
The boy feels attracted to his mother and sees his father as a rival. As a result, the boy identifies with his father, adopting his values and developing a masculine identity.
What is the Electra complex?
A girl's psychosexual competition with her mother for her father's affection.
The Electra complex typically arises during the phallic stage of psychosexual development, around ages 3 to 6.
what are the 3 defence mechanisms?
Displacement, denial, repression
Define displacement
transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto substitute target
Define denial
Refusing to accept or acknowledge aspects of reality
Define displacement
transferring feelings from the true source of the negative emotion to a substitute trge
What is a key strength of the psychodynamic approach in understanding behavior?
it emphasizes the role of unconscious processes in influencing behavior.
what are 4 strengths of the psychodynamic approach?
focuses on the unconscious mind
real life application in therapy, e.g. talking therapy
emphasises the role of early childhood and its impact on one’s future.
what are 4 weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach?
Unscientific and Untestable- Concepts like the unconscious mind are difficult to test scientifically.
Deterministic- Suggests that behavior is predetermined by unconscious forces and childhood experiences, leaving little room for free will.
outdated Ideas- Some of Freud’s ideas, such as penis envy or the Oedipus complex, are considered outdated and gender-biased in modern psychology.
what is biological determinism?
the belief that human behavior, thoughts, and traits are primarily determined by biological factors with little influence from the environment or social factors.
is the biological approach determinist or free will?
it supports biological determinism
is the psychodynamic approach determinist or free will?
It supports psychic determinism.
What is psychic determinism?
Psychic determinism is the idea that thoughts and behaviors are influenced by unconscious motivations and past experiences, rather than random choices, dismissing free will.
What does the humanistic approach assume about free will?
Assumes that we all have free will and are agents of our own development, so we can ignore the influence of internal and external factors on our behaviour.
We all desire self-actualisation
Who is Abraham Maslow?
One of the founders of the humanistic approach, and made the hierarchy of needs.
What are the levels of the pyramid of hierarchy?
Level 1: Physiological needs, including, water, food and shelter
Level 2: Safety needs, including, security, structure and protection
Level 3: Social needs, including, friendship, love and intimacy
Level 4: Esteem needs, including positive self-thoughts, achievement and reputation
Level 5: Self-actualisation, including self-fulfilment
Why might someone not achieve self-actualisation?
unexpected life events, personality factors, socioeconomic factors, illness etc.
Define self-actualisation
The fulfilling of ones full potential as a human- becoming what you are capable of.
What is the Hierarchy of Needs?
A five-levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic physiological needs must be satisfied before higher needs such as self-actuialisation can be achieved.
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