AP Psych Q3 Test

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.)

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00).

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo [pluh-SEE-bo] effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

confounding variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results.

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.)

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

normal curve

(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

motivation

a need or desire that energized and directs behavior

instinct

complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

physiological needs

a basic bodily requirement

- creates a drive: an arouse motivated state

drive-reduction theory

idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (and reduce the drive)

homeostasis

a biological balance

- a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

arousal theory

humans will act to find the right level of stimulation/arousal (not just to satisfy needs)

- curiosity "because it's there"

hypothalamus

one area secretes appetite stimulating hormones that trigger hunger

- another area secretes appetite suppressing hormones that trigger feeling of fullness

ghrelin

hormone release by an empty stomach, sends hunger signal to brain

set point

point at which your "weight thermostat" may be set

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy output

- when caloric intake is low, the body can go into a "mini-hibernation" state

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Moderate arousal leads to optimal performance

(a little anxiety/nervousness can help on tests, especially when it is something well-practiced)

Hierarchy of Needs

Pyramid of Human Needs, beginning at the base with psychological needs that must be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

Who developed the Hierarchy of Needs?

Abraham Maslow

glucose

form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues

BMI

Body Mass Index

- number calculated by inputting your height and weight (m,kg)

asexual

having no sexual attraction to anyone

testosterone

most important male sex hormone

- both male and females have it

estrogen

sex hormones that contribute to female sex characteristics

- more prevalent in females than males

- levels peak during ovulation

prenatal period

direct development of primary sex characteristics

puberty

hormones surge and development of secondary sex characteristics

after puberty

hormones facilitate sexual behavior

Pioneers in the science/psychology of Sex

Kinsey (1940s-50s) Masters & Johnson (1950s-70s)

Sexual Response Cycle

Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution

Refractory period

in human sexuality, a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm

Biological Influences on Sexual Motivation

Sexual maturity, sex hormones

Psychological Influences on Sexual Motivation

External stimuli, imagined stimuli, fantasies

Social-Cultural Influences on Sexual Motivation

Family & social values, religious and personal values, cultural expectations, media

Affiliation Need

need to build relationships + feel part of a group

Effects of Isolation during Childhood

Anxiety, avoidance, withdrawn, easily frightened, speechless

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

achievement motivation

desire for significant accomplishment

grit

in psychology, passion and perseverance in pursuit of long term goals

Emotion

A response cycle of the whole organism, involving

1) Physiological arousal

2) Expressive behaviors

3) Conscious experience

James-Lange theory

Our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus

Cannon-Bard theory

An emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers

1) The physiological responses

2) The subjective experience of emotion

Shacter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

To experience emotion one must

1) Be physically aroused

2) Cognitively label the arousal

Arousal + Label = Emotion :)

Role of Cognition

"JL" + "LB" Theories don't take cognition into account

"SS" shows that cognition matters for our emotions

Complex emotions

Love, hate

- Require cognitive appraisal/interpretation

- "High road" through thalamus cortex

- Conscious awareness

Simple emotions

Fear, likes, dislikes

- Does not require cognitive appraisal

- "Low road" shortcut bypassing the cortex and going straight to the amygdala

- Unconscious, like a reflex

Nonverbal cues

Reading facial expressions, posture, voice tones

Gender effects

Generally, women are more sensitive to nonverbal emotional cues, more expressive, more empathetic. Men are generally more associated with anger.

Cultural effects

Many emotional expressions are consistent across cultures

Facial Feedback Effect

The tendency of facial muscle to trigger corresponding feelings, such as fear, anger, or happiness

Behavior Feedback Effect

The tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

Stress

Process by which we perceive and receive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

Types of stressors

Catastrophes, significant life changes, daily hassles and social stress

Fight or Flight Theory (Cannon)

Sympathetic Nervous System triggers the release of cortisol and epinephrine from the adrenal glands

General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye)

Body adapts to stress in 3 phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

Tend and Befriend response

Under stress, people often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

Health Psychology

A subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

Psychoimmunology

Study of how the psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together effect the immune system and resulting health

Coronary heart disease

The clogging of vessels that nourish the heart muscle

Type A

Competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone

- More prone to heart diseases, pessimism linked to heart diseases

Type B

Easygoing, Relaxed

Who studies Personality Types

Friedman + Roseman

Catharsis

The idea that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

Optimism/Internal locus of control

Less stress, better health, and better moods

Pessimism/External locus of control

More stress, worse health, worse moods