Unit 2a: Perception, Thinking & Intelligence

Bottom-up Processing

Begins with raw sensory information and builds up to a complete perception (relies on sensory input like colors and shapes to recognize and understand objects or information without using prior knowledge)

Top-down Processing

Forming perceptions based on previous knowledge/ works from the whole down to specific parts (relies on internal prior expectations

Schemas

Our frameworks for thinking, organizing and understanding our world/helps guide perception (***base for top-down processing)

Perceptual Set

Readiness to perceive something in a particular way/having expectations for a stimulus (we see what we expect to see)

Context

External factor, a stimulus can produce different perceptions based on the environment

Culture

External factor, shows how learning influences perception

Gestalt Principles

Perceptual principles proposed by Gestalt psychology that help explain how humans organize their perceptual world, a Gestalt is an organized whole (5 main principles: closure, proximity, figure & ground, similarity, continuity)

Closure

Gestalt principle, making a whole/completed object by filling in gaps

Figure & Ground

Gestalt principle, figure is the object & ground is its surroundings

Proximity

Gestalt principle, items close together group more easily than items far apart

Similarity

Gestalt principle, items more alike (similar color, size, etc.) group more easily than items that are different

Continuity

Gestalt principle, elements arranged on a line or curve are perceived as related

Attention

Interaction of sensation & perception that is affected by internal/external processes (2 types: selective and inattentional blindness) 

Selective Attention

Focused awareness of certain stimuli in the environment (like bottleneck effect), ex. cocktail party effect

Cocktail Party Effect

When people focus their attention to their names/specific topics in loud or distracting environments

Inattentional Blindness

When attention is focused on one part of the visual field & as a result, you may ignore or miss other parts 

Change Blindness

A specific type of inattentional blindness that occurs when differences in visual field are not perceptual due to inattention/brief interruption

Sensory Adaptation

A gradual decrease over time in the responsiveness of the sensory system to a constant stimulus

Binocular Depth Cues

Two types: Retinal disparity and convergence

Retinal Disparity

Determining depth based of differences between what each eye sees

Convergence

Determines depth based on how much both eyes rotate inward (happens in order to focus better on objects

Monocular Depth Cues

Uses one eye to give illusion of depth on 2D surfaces (5 main cues: relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, interposition)

Relative Clarity

Monocular, determines distance based on an object's sharpness or haziness. Hazy or less detailed objects are perceived as being farther away, while sharp, clear objects are seen as closer because light from distant objects must pass through more atmosphere

Relative Size

Monocular, closer objects will appear bigger than farther objects

Texture Gradient

Monocular, objects that are closer show more detail, while objects that are farther away look less detailed and smoother, a principle used by our brain to interpret the environment

Linear Perspective

Monocular, parallel lines seem to converge in the distance

Interposition

Monocular, one object partially blocking the view of another object is perceived as being closer, a powerful visual cue that helps the brain determine the relative distance of objects in a scene

Visual Perception Constancies

Maintain the perception of an object even when images of object in visual field change (four main types: color, brightness, shape, size)

Color Constancy

An object has the same hue or color despite the amount of reflection that may change

Brightness Constancy

An object has the same lightness despite changing the amount of illumination

Shape Constancy

An object has the same dimension despite change in angle/orientation

Size Constancy

An object has the same proportion despite shrinking/getting larger

Gestalt Psychology

Illusion of movement (illusions can offer cues about basic principles of the mind)

Apparent Movement 

Ex. of gestalt psychology, can be visually perceived even when objects aren’t actually moving (phi phenomenon- when two or more lights blink on & off quickly / stroboscopic movement- still images, illusion of movement created by a rapid series of slightly varying images like a flipbook / autokinetic effect- stationary point of light appears to move in dark environment due to small eye movement)

Perceptual Adaptation

If perception is altered the brain will work to overcome this shift using previous memories

Cognition

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering & communicating (forming concepts, schemas, prototypes

Prototypes

Ex. of cognitive processing, ideal examples of any given concept, they develop with exposure to objects in a category/impacts our thinking since we tend to make judgements based on if it matches our prototype

Assimilation

Taking new information but not changing the schema in the light of it, places new info into existing schema

Accomodation

Taking new information and changing schema to incorporate new info, changing existing schema or creating a new one

Algorithm

Addresses problems by attempting all possible solutions until answer is found

Heuristics

Uses mental shortcuts to make judgements (less accurate and reliable than using an algorithm but more efficient)

Representativeness Heuristic

Decisions made due to prior expectations/stereotypes (make lead to errors in judgment)

Availability Heuristic

First or most vivid example that comes to mind when making a decision

Mental Set

Prior experience that were successful

Framing

Circumstances surrounding a decision

Gambler’s Fallacy

The idea that if something has not happened yet it will soon (H,H,H…H or T?)

Sunk Cost

You keep doing something even if you aren’t benefitting from it

Executive Functions

Cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, carry out goal-directed behaviors & critical thinking/ the prefrontal cortex generally controls executive functions

Creativity

Way of thinking that includes generating novel ideas, new & original

Alternative Use Test

Used for creativity, people list as many possible uses for an object

Divergent Thinking

Creating many solutions/ideas

Convergent Thinking

Narrows down solutions to a single best solution

Functional Fixedness

Failing to solve a problem because your stuck on an object’s common use for it (hinders creative thinking)