Strain Theory, RATS, Labeling Theory

Who developed strain theory?

Robert K. Merton

What theory asserts the societal pressure can lead individuals to commit crimes when they cannot achieve culturally approved goals through legitimate means?

Strain Theory

What highlights that while society prompts goals like wealth and success, access to the means, e.g., education and employment) to achieve these goals is not equally available to everyone?

Societal Goals

This concept refers to a situation where one middle-class family member is very successful and driven while their siblings are not. This can create jealousy, leading to criminal behavior driven by self-hate.

Middle-Class Family Crimes

What are sources of strain?

• Failure to Achieve Goals

• Disjunction of Expectations and Achievement

• Positive Value Stimuli

• Negative Stimuli

What is Anomie?

• A state of normlessness where societal norms break down due to rapid social change or inequality, leading to confusion about acceptable behaviors

What is strain?

The pressure individuals feel when they can attain society’s goals( like wealth and success) through legitimate means. This strain creates frustration, which may lead to deviant behavior as a coping mechanism. 

Who is the foundational figure in sociology? and who’s work on anomie significantly contributed to the development of sociology in criminology?

Emile Durkheim

What are social facts?

• External and constraining social forces that influence individual behavior

• Examples: Laws, norms, values, religion

What is mechanical solidarity?

Social cohesion based on shared constraints and similarities (pre-industrial societies)

What is organic solidarity?

Social cohesion based on interdependence to the division of labor (modern societies)

What was the groundbreaking study conducted by Durkheim when examining social causes?

Suicide

What are the four types of characterized suicide?

• Egoistic

• Altruistic

• Anomie

• Fatalistic

What did Durkheim believe when he said that crime was a normal and necessary part of society. It affirms societal values by provoking collective responses that reaffirm acceptable behaviors.

Crime as a Social Fact

What does Durkheim infer about the balancing integration (community ties) and regulation (norms and rules) is essential. Disruption of this balance leads to anomie, pushing individuals who feel excluded to engage in deviant behavior.

Social Integration and Regulation

Who was a key figure in American Sociology, and his Strain Theory that expanded on Durkheim’s ideas, linking structure more directly to individual behavior concerning crime and deviance?

John Merton

What does Merton adapt about Durkheim's concept of anomie?

The focus on how societal pressures influence individual behavior

What does Merton emphasis about American Society?

American society places a strong emphasis on achieving material success (the “American dream”), but not everyone has equal access to legitimate means (like education and job opportunities)

What are the five ways people respond to strain?

1. conformity

2. Innovation

3. Ritualism

4. Retreatism

5. Rebellion

What is conformity?

Accept goals and follow the rules even when its hard

What is innovation?

Accepting the goals, using illegal methods like crimes to achieve them

What is ritualism?

Giving up on both goals and rules and withdrawing form society

What is rebellion?

Rejecting both goals and means and creating a new system with goals

Who was a prominent American sociologist and criminologist, best known for his development of the General Strain Theory (GST)?

Robert Agnew

Agnew’s research have a profound influence on the field of criminology, particularly regarding understanding the causes of crime and deviant behavior.

1. true

2. false

True

This theorist focused on juvenile delinquency, social psychology, and criminological theory, and he is one of the leading scholars in revising and expanding classical criminological theories

Agnew

What is Agnew’s perspective on Strain different?

His perspective is different from earlier criminological theories because he broadens the understanding of why people commit crimes. His General Strain Theory (GST) moves beyond the limitations of traditional strain theories, such as those proposed by Robert Merten, in several kinds of ease. 

What theory focuses mainly on economic strain—the inability to achieve socially accepted goals like financial success–which was through to drive people to commit crimes?

Classical Strain Theory

What theory proposes that strain comes from a variety of sources not just economic hardships?

Agnew’s GST

What are the sources that Agnew addresses regarding strain?

• Failure to achieve non-economic goals (e.g., status, respect)

• Remove positively valued stimuli (e.g., losing a job or a loved one).

• Exposure to negative stimuli (e.g., abuse, victimization, bullying)

GST makes for more compressive and applicable to various groups including youth minorities and people from different socioeconomic situations.

1. True

2. False

True

What theory places a strong emphasis on emotions, particularly negative emotions such as anger, frustration, and depression, which argues can lead to criminal behavior?

Agnew’s GST

What theory suggests that people who experience strain are more likely to commit crimes if they lack healthy coping mechanisms for dealing with their negative emotions?

GST

How is the applicability of GST offer a wide range of crimes?

GST is not limited to explaining only economic crimes but also violent crimes, substance abuse, gang involvement, and even domestic violence. This makes Agnew’s theory more versatile and applicable to different types of criminal behavior.

What does Agnew’s work focus heavily on while also influencing crime prevention strategies, emphasizing the need to reduce the strains that can lead to crime. For example, improving social support networks, enhancing problem-solving skills, or addressing bullying and victimization in schools and communities can potentially reduce crime rates?

Focus on Preventative Measures

This theory was developed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson.

RAT

When did RATS emerge?

During a time when crime rates were rising in many industrialized nations, particularly in urban areas, leading criminologists to search for explanations that linked crime to changes in daily life

What does RATS focus on?

On the physical or social cause of crime to focus on the situation context to make crime possible. This situational approach is part of environmental criminology

What are the three core principles of RAT?

1. Motivated Offender(s)

2. Suitable Target(s)

3. Lack of capable guardianship

What is the presence of a motivated offender?

motivated offenders exist in society at all times

What is the opportunistic aspect of a motivated offender?

they are likely to act when an opportunity presents itself regarding moral considerations

What is the rationalization of a motivated offender?

They justify actions to themselves; may prescribe crime as acceptable or necessary

What is the impulsivity aspect of a motivated offender?

They can act on impulses; decisions often made quickly through forethought

What are the psychological factors of a motivated offender?

Factors such as mental health issues, substance abuse, or emotional distress can influence a motivated offender

How does the socioeconomic status influence a motivated offender?

poverty or economic hardships may increase motivation to offender

How does social influence affect a motivated offender?

Peer pressure or social circles can encourage criminal behavior

What are examples of suitable targets?

• Vacant house in the suburbs

• Unlocked car

• Female walking alone

• Bars

• Carrying cash 

• Having a vehicle filled of purchased goods

What are examples of a capable guardian?

• It can be police/security

• Owning a dog

• Being at home to protect your goods

• Increased lighting

• Video camera monitory

• Home or car alarm systems

What are Hot spots?

• A place where potentially motivated criminals congregate, thereby elevating the chances of victimization

How does Routine Activities and Lifestyle affect a possible suitable target?

A person’s living arrangements can affect victim risk, and people who live in unguarded areas are at the mercy of motivated offenders

What is an example of crime prevention through RAT?

Target Hardening

What are examples of Target Hardening?

• Installing security systems or cameras

• Using better locks, alarms, or gates

• Increasing street lighting or visibility in vulnerable areas

Guardianship can be improved in a variety of ways, from human surveillance (police presence, neighborhood watches) to technological solutions (CCTV, alarms)

1. true

2. false

true

What does the Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) focus on?

focuses on designing public spaces in ways that naturally deter crime (e.g., by eliminating  blind spots in parks or installing better lighting in alleys)

How can you reduce Target Attractiveness?

• Making potential targets less visible or valuable can prevent crimes. For example: 

  • Encouraging people to avoid leaving valuable items visible in their cars

  • Encrypting sensitive data to make it less accessible in cases of cybercrime

How does social changes create crime opportunities?

Social changes, such as the growth of urbanization, mass tourism, or technological changes, have influenced the way routine activities create crime opportunities.

What are the strengths of RAT?

• Simplicity and Clarity

• Applicability to crime prevention

• Wide applicability

What are the weakness/criticisms of RAT?

• Overemphasis on opportunity

• Victim blaming

• Limited scope for certain crimes

When did labeling theory emerge?

Emerged in the 1960s within the symbolic interactionist tradition explores how people interpret and respond to social interactions. It was a reaction to traditional criminological theories (like biological and psychological theories) that focus on the inherent traits of individuals.

What does labeling theory focus on?

Focuses on how society defines deviance and how people respond to being labeled as deviant.

Who was one of the most influential sociologists in developing labeling theory?

Howard Becker

Becker’s famous work, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Devian (1963), is considered a seminal text in labeling theory and deviance studies.

1. true

2. false

true

What does Becker argue about in his book?

He argues that deviance is socially constructed and not an inherent quality of certain acts. This construction occurs when societal groups define certain behaviors as deviant and then label individuals who engage in these behaviors accordingly.

How does Becker define defiance as a social process?

Deviance arises from the reactions of others. According to him, the process of making rules and applying them to others is key to understanding deviance. 

What is a moral entrepreneur, according to Becker?

It describes individuals or groups who take it upon themselves to label certain behaviors as deviant, thus creating rules and applying them to others. These people have the power to shape societal norms and perceptions of deviance.

What are examples of moral entrepreneurs?

political figures, religious leaders, or activists who spearhead campaigns to criminalize or decriminalize certain behaviors, such as drug use or same-sex marriage. 

Who was the American Sociologist who made a crucial contribution to labeling theory by developing the concepts of primary and secondary deviance?

Edwin Lemert

Lemert introduced the distinction between primary and secondary deviance which became central to understanding how social reactions to deviance contribute to the escalation of deviant behavior.

• true

• false

true

What is primary deviance?

Refers to initial acts of deviance that have little effect on an individual’s self-concept or social identity.

What is secondary deviance?

This occurs when societal reactions to deviance (like stigmatization, punishment, or leading) cause an individual to internalize a deviant identity. The person begins to view themselves as deviant, which may lead to more persistent deviant behavior. 

What is the amplification of Deviance?

That occurs through social reaction. He argued that once individuals are labeled, they often face exclusion, discrimination, and limited opportunities, which pushes them toward further deviance. 

How does labeling theory help explain criminal records and recidivism?

It helps to explain the cycle of recidivism and criminal behavior. Once individuals are convicted of a crime and formally labeled as a criminal, they often face significant challenges are tied to the stigma associated with the label of criminal, which can affect employment, housing, social relationships, and self-perception

People with criminal records are frequently excluded from job opportunities. The stigmatization caused by a criminal record results in significant barriers to gains full employment, further perpetuating their deviant identity.

• true

• false

true

What is an example of Employment Discrimination?

Minor criminal convictions are significant when it comes to hiring people, employers are often hesitant to hire individuals with criminal records regardless of whether the offense is relevant to the job.

What is the self-fulfilling prohphecy?

Once individuals internalize the criminal label, they are more likely to re-offend, as the system of societal rejection reinforces their deviant identity. This supports Lmeert’s concept of secondary deviance, where the individual embraces a deviant identity due to societal reactions.

How does labeling theory influenced the development of diversion programs in the juvenile system?

Programs are designed to prevent the long-term consequences of stigmatization by diverting youth away from formal judicial proceedings and toward rehabilitative services.

What is an example of Juvenile Justice being impacted by labeling theory?

Youth courts or teen courts, where young offenders are judged by their peers and given alternative sentences such as community service or counseling. Help avoid the formal labeling process. This allows youth to address their behavior without being stigmatized

How does labeling theory inspire restorative justice?

Restorative justice practices encourage offenders to repair the harm done to victims and society without attaching the deviant label. This approach focuses on accountability and healing rather than punishment.

What is an example of restorative justice being affected by the concepts of labeling theory?

Countries like New Zealand and Canada, strive justice programs for juvenile offenders have recidivisms rates by allowing  young people to reintegrate into society without the long-term effects of formal labeling

How does labeling theory influence decriminalization and legal reform?

Labeling theory has influenced the push toward the decriminalization of certain behaviors, such as drug use, prohibitions, and other non-violent crimes. The theory argues that criminalizing these behaviors creates unnecessary labels that only increase the likelihood of deviant behavior instead of addressing the underlying causes.

Example of decriminalization of Marijuana

In the US, Canada, and parts of Europe, the decriminalization and legislation of marijuana reflect the idea, and the realization of marihuana reflects the idea that criminal labeling causes more harm than the behavior itself. Rather than labeling users as criminals, the focus is on harm reduction and treatment.

Sex work decriminalization

Another area influenced by labeling theory is the decriminalization of sex work, which aims to reduce the stigma and harm associated with labeling sex workers as criminals.

How has labeling theory been applied to academic underachievement?

Labeling theory has been applied extensively in education, where students are often labeled based on their behavior, performance, or socioeconomic status. These labels can have long-lasting effects on a student’s self-concept and academic trajectory.

What are the negative affects of labeling theory in the education system?

Labeling theory has been applied extensively in education, where students are often labeled based on their behavior, performance, or socioeconomic status. These labels can have long-lasting effects on a student’s self-concept and academic trajectory.

Tracking and Streaming

Educational systems that use tracking or streaming, where students are divided into different academic paths based on perceived ability, often reinforce labels. Students placed in lower academic trucks may see themselves as less capable and perform accordingly.

How has labeling theory impacted special education?

Labeling theory has impacted how students are identified for special education services. While providing necessary support for students with learning disabilities, the labels attached to these students with learning disabilities, the labels attached to these students can lead to stigmatization and lower expectations from both teachers and peers. 

How does stigma affect special education?

Being labeled as needing special education can carry a stigma that affects how students are perceived by their peers and teachers. This label can also limit future opportunities by segregating students from mainstream education.

How does stigma affect mental health?

Labeling theory is highly relevant to the field of mental health, where the stigma attached to psychiatric diagnoses can have profound effects on individuals’ identities and their treatment in society. Being labeled as mentally ill can lead to social exclusion, discrimination, and self-stigmatization

How does stigma affect mental illness?

Stigma: the label of the mentally ill often carries a significant social stigma that can lead to isolation, discrimination in employment, and social rejection. Once labeled, individuals may find it difficult to escape the label and reintegrate into society.

What are Anti-stigma campaigns in relation to labeling theory?

Modern mental health advocacy efforts are increasingly focused on reducing the stigma associated with mental illness. Campaigns aimed at challenging negative stereotypes and promoting understanding reflect labeling theory’s concern with the harmful effects of stigmatization.

Public Health and Addiction in relation to Labeling Theory

Labeling theory has had a major influence on the public health approach to issues like addiction. Instead of viewing addiction as a crime or moral failing, the modern public health approach sees it as a medical issue that requires treatment and compassion rather than punishment.

What are the three strengths of Labeling Theory?

1. Focus on social process

2. Practical policy influence

3. Integration of Identity and behavior

Focus on social process

Labeling theory highlights how societal reactions and definitions shape deviance, shifting the focus away from the individual to the power dynamics in society

Practical Policy Influence

It has been influential in advocating for more rehavilitative, rather than punitive, criminal justice policies

Integration of identity and behavior

 By linking identity formation with social reactions, the integration theory offers insight into why certain individuals may become persistent offenders.

What are the three limitations of Labeling Theory?

1. Neglect of Primary Deviance

2. Inconsistent Labeling

3. Overemphasis on Labels.

Neglect of Primary Deviance

1. Labeling theory provides little explanation for why people commit deviant acts in the first place (primary deviance), focusing instead on secondary deviance

Inconsistent Labeling

Not all individuals who commit the same act and labeled similarly. Race, class, and gender often influence who is labeled and how is not

Overemphasis on Labels

Some critics agree that labeling theory places too much weight on societal reactions and ignores other potential influences on behavior, such as economic conditions, peer influences, or personality traits

What is positive Labeling?

Labeling theory tends to focus on the negative consequences of labels but reflects the potential positive impacts of labels, such as being labeled “gifted” or “talented,” which can encourage pro-social behavior.