APWH unit 2

The Olmecs

The Olmecs

800 - 400 B.C.E.

An early American agricultural society. Known for its role of rubber, development of maize, and beans, use of jade, stone statues, blending of human and animal, hieroglyphics, and accurate calendars. It had a strong influence on later civilizations

What was the first major metropolis of the Americas?

Teotihuacan (200's BCE to 800 CE)

What was Teotihuacan known for?

The Pyramid of the Sun with evidence of sacrificial victims, the trade of cacao, feathers, rubber, and obsidian, reliance on agriculture, and chinampas

What are chinampas?

Beds of aquatic weeds, mud, and earth placed in frames made of cane and rooted in lakes to create 'floating island'; system of irrigated agricultural utilized by Aztecs.

The Maya Civilization

300s to 800s CE- agricultural civilization (maize, manioc, chinampas); roles of obsidian and cacao; city-state structure with landed aristocrats; adobe dwellings. Examples of Mayan city-states: Tikal, Calakmul, Palenque, and Caracol

Maya Society and Religion

Patriarchal with exceptions (Pacal of Palenque and his mother); polytheistic gods, the Popol Vuh, and the role of ball courts.

Maya Achievements and Decline

Developed hieroglyphic alphabet (becoming phonetic), pyramids for astronomy (huacas) and calendar use; writings burned by the Spanish; mysterious decline due to warfare, overcultivation, drought

Toltec Civilization

Filled the vacuum left by the collapse of Teotihuacan and the Mayan civilization; adopted much from earlier sedentary peoples; ruled over Teotihuacan.

When was the Aztec Empire?

1325-1521

How did the Aztec Empire start?

One of the groups moving into the Valley of Mexico after the fall of Teotihuacan was The Mexica. They had unknown origins, but there's a legend that their homeland was an island on a lake called Aztlán. During the early 12th century, the Aztecs left their original home and began a migration. In 1325, they settled in Tenochtitlan. They were at first forced to make alliances with stronger city-states, but they were excellent warriors, and the Aztecs had independent power by 1428.

How did the Aztecs build and control their empire?

They began expanding power by securing "allies" - lesser kingdoms under their control- and conquered much of central Mexico. They developed a stratified society led by an emperor - the representative of the gods. There was a religious cult of sacrifice ("flower wars") as a means of uniting society and terrorizing enemies. For the remainder of the 15th century, the Aztecs had control over Mexico, from the Atlantic/Pacific border to the Guatemalan border.

What was the Aztec capital?

Tenochtitlan on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco

Aztec state power

Authoritarian power invested in the Monarch, combining religious and nonreligious authority. The ruler claimed descent from Gods, acting as a middleman between the material and metaphysical worlds.

Aztec Monarch Selection

Monarch's position was not inherited through a law of succession. After the ruler's death, the next ruler was selected from within the royal family by a group of senior officials, who were also family members and eligible.

Aztec Governance

The ruler was advised by a council of lords, headed by the prime minister, who was the chief executive of the government and bureaucracy.

Aztec central government

Beyond the capital, the power of the central government was limited. Rulers of territories subject to the Aztecs were allowed some autonomy for paying tribute to the central government, either in goods or captives.

Diversity of Aztec Gods

The Aztecs worshiped many gods, some inherited from older Mesoamerican cultures. These gods often had consorts and multiple manifestations, and were closely linked to nature (rain, water, fire, corn, sky). Yearly festivals and ceremonies were held to honor them.

Gods of fertility and agriculture

Tlaloc, the god of rain and fertility, essential for agriculture,

Gods of creation and the universe

Quetzalcoatl, originally a Mayan god, associated with creation and the universe; abstract and essential to cosmetology and cosmography.

Gods of warfare

Huitzilopochtli, the Aztec god of the sun and war, was the patron god and central to the state's religious practices. He was believed to need warmth for his nightly battle against darkness.

Temple of Tenochtitlan

This major temple was dedicated to both Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli, reflecting the importance of both rain and war in the Aztec society, and uniting Mayan and Aztec religious traditions.

Aztec Sacrifice Rituals

Their religion contained fatalism- described as a struggle between forces of good and evil throughout the universe. The struggle led to the creation and destruction of 4 worlds or suns. Their belief was that we are in the fifth sun, and we are destined to end with destruction. In order to postpone destruction, the Aztecs expanded the Mesoamerican tradition of sacrifice, increasing its frequency and intensity. Rituals included human sacrifices, with jaguars and eagles devouring human hearts, and even instances of cannibalism.

Tenochtitlan's Significance

Tenochtitlan was considered a sacred space, referred to as the "foundation of heaven." It was modeled as a Mesoamerican city-state with a ruler or spokesperson.

City Structure of Tenochtitlan

The central zone featured whitewashed palaces and temples, surrounded by adobe brick neighborhoods. The city was connected by causeways and canals, with each ward controlled by a calpulli (kin group)

Political Organization of the Aztecs

Each city-state was ruled by a "speaker", with Tenochtitlan's ruler known as the "Great Speaker," a living god with great wealth and many rituals. Well-placed subjects could become priests, warriors, or enter the bureaucracy.

Aztec transition to Military Aristocracy

The Aztecs transitioned from old calpulli clans to a military aristocracy. The cult of sacrifice drove expansion and politics in the late Aztec Empire, with tribute serving as both a goal and a system reinforcer.

Rule of Subordinate Societies

Subordinate societies were ruled more through intimidation than through an administrative government. Tribute was collected to maintain control, often enforced by the threat of military action.

Aztec Social Structure

Society was strongly stratified, with a notable presence of slavery (non-hereditary) and many poor, indentured, or serf agricultural workers. Slavery was non-hereditary; people could sell themselves into slavery to pay off debt and later buy their freedom; their children were considered free citizens. The calpullis managed common neighborhoods, temples, and farmland.

Aztec economy and markets

Regular markers used gold dust or cacao beans as currency, mainly operating through barter. The great market at Tlatelolco was always running, with long-distance trade of luxury items managed by the merchant class, the pochteca, regulated by judges and inspectors.

Market System and Tribute

the markets were not free; their purpose was to redistribute tribute goods to nobles and (to a lesser extent) peasants. This system was supported by the traditional calpulli kin groups, which were central to social, organizational, and political life.

Social tensions and Military Meritocracy

Rising social orders of nobility in military and administrative positions created tension. The military was highly ritualized and operated as a meritocracy, reinforcing social stratification through clothing, hairstyles, and other symbols.

Role of women in Aztec society

Aztec women were subordinate but could pass on property. Polygyny (having more than one wife) was sometimes practiced. Women's primary activities included weaving and food production, spending about six hours a day grinding maize on stone metates. The lack of advanced technology like the wheel and domesticated animals limited their efficiency.

Chavin Civilization

The Chavin Civilization, possibly foundational, emerged around 3500 BCE near the city of Caral in Peru. It featured plazas, temples, residential areas, and astronomical viewing areas. They grew squash, beans, tomatoes, and cotton, mined salt, and traded with coastal regions

Height of Chavin Civilization

Around 1000 BCE, near present-day Chavin de Huantar, the civilization reached its height. It had a ceremonial temple with underground canals. This mysterious civilization, which may have had writing, collapsed by 200 CE

Moche Civilization

The Moche Civilization developed in the first millennium in Peru, covering 2500 square miles with a population of 10,000 people. They heavily relied on irrigation and built the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon. They were preoccupied with battles, rituals sacrifice, and astronomy, and produced stonework and metalwork artifacts. The civilization fell apart by the 800s CE, possibly due to environmental factors.

Wari and Chimor Migrations

After the Moche, the Wari and then the Chimor people migrated, also relying on irrigation. All these civilizations were likely seafaring traders, exchanging jewelry, beads, and metal along the coast.

Inca Incorporation of Cultures

The Inca incorporated previous cultures and came to dominate and integrate various societies through state and bureaucratic organizations. They organized themselves into 10 related Quechua-speaking clans (ayllus) near Cuzco, which began challenging the Chimor civilization for regional control

What was the capital of the Inca empire?

Cuzco

Inca Expansion under Pachacuti

By 1438, under their ruler Pachacuti, the Inca gained control of the region from Cuzco to Lake Titicaca. Conquest were extended with his son Topac Yupanqui and the next ruler, Huayna Capac.

Incan Empire- Tawantinsuyu/Tahuantinsuyu

The Incan Empire, known as Twantinsuyu/Tahuantinsuyu ("the world of four quarters"), extended from Colombia to Chile and eastward to Argentina. It encompassed many ethnicities and had a population of 9-13 million

Inca Ruler and Governance

The Inca ruler was considered almost a god. The empire was divided into four provinces, each with its own governor. A state bureaucracy led by nobles organized the society from larger to smaller units

Role of Curacas

Local rulers, known as curacas, were allowed autonomy but their sons were educated in Cuzco. This helped ensure loyalty and integration into Inca society

What strategies did the Incas use for societal integration?

The intentional spread of the Quechua language and forced relocation of populations were strategies used by the Incas for societal integration

Inca Road Networks

The Inca empire featured an extensive network of roads, totaling 24800 miles, with tambos serving as waystations for inns, resupply stations, and relay points for runners.

Inca Extraction and Redistribution

The Incas extracted land, labor, and military service from conquered people, offering building and irrigation in return for loyalty and tribute. Land was redistributed among the people, the state, and religious purposes ("the sun")

What was the mit'a system?

The mita system was a rotating labor system where men worked in mines and construction while women wove wool

Ayllu and Gender Roles

Each ayllu was theoretically self-sufficient with gender equality, often referred to as "Inca socialism". Men were builders, farmers, and herders, while women worked in the fields, wove, or managed the home. Roles were theoretically equal with parallel descent and inheritance. There was an emphasis on female virginity

Inca Religious Roles by Gender

Females were identified with goddesses and cults of the moon, fertility, and corn. Despite theoretical equality, inequality was evident through the presence of forced priestesses and concubines

Inca Political Achievements

The Incas achieved rule over various ethnicities and peoples, ensuring labor and maize in exchange for irrigation, roads, and luxury items. There were harsh responses to revolt including creating the yanas, a servant class for the nobility.

Incan Nobility

Nobility was drawn from the 10 royal ayllus and distinguished by their dress and customs. The merchant class was limited, with more emphasis on self-sufficiency and state control of production and surplus.

What materials did the Inca use for tools and crafts, and what was absent?

The Inca used bronze, gold, and silver, but did not have iron

What was the quipu and its significance in Inca culture?

The quipu was a mathematical recording system akin to an abacus, used for accounting and record-keeping, dating back to the Chavin civilization

What were some major achievements of the Inca in engineering and statecraft?

The Inca constructed extensive road networks, bridges, and irrigation systems, while effectively managing diverse cultures through a centralized bureaucracy and kinship groups like ayllus and calpulli

What was Cahokia, and what was its significance?

Cahokia, located near St. Louis, Illinois, was a major urban center known for its large mounds and served as an administrative capital until its decline in the 1200s.

What is terraced farming?

an ancient technique for growing crops on hillsides or mountain slopes

What lifestyle did most Americans west of the Mississippi River follow before the 1st century CE, and what agricultural advancements did they achieve?

Most Americans in this region were hunting and gathering until the 1st century CE when agriculture spread. Agricultural communities developed advanced irrigation systems and cultivated crops like squash and beans.

What was Chaco Canyon, and what characterized its urban developments?

Chaco Canyon in southern New Mexico was an urban center with walled cities featuring Pueblo-style timber roofs, along with circular ceremonial chambers called Kivas

Who were the Anasazi, and what was their significance?

The Anasazi were Ancient Pueblo people known for their advanced agricultural practices, road systems, and significant urban centers like Chaco Canyon

What migration occurred among the Ancient Pueblo people in the mid-12th century?

The Ancient Pueblo people migrated to Mesa Verde in southwest Colorado, abandoning it by the late 13th century

What factors contributed to the migration of the ancient Pueblo people?

Migration was previously attributed to drought, but increasing warfare likely also played a significant role.

What was Medina (Yathrib), and what role did it play in early Islamic history?

Medina was an oasis town to the north of Mecca, known for its caravan routes and alliances. It played a crucial role in early Islamic history as the destination of Muhammad's hijra (migration) from Mecca in 622 CE, where he established the first Islamic community (umma)

Umma

The community of all Muslims

How did the roles and rights of women in pre-islamic Arabian societies compare to neighboring civilizations?

They had a stronger role compared to neighboring civilizations. They were involved in household affairs, received a bride price, had a voice in family matters, and did not wear veils. The bride price is an interesting comparison to the dowry; a bride price is when money is paid by the groom/groom's family to the bride/bride's family, whereas a dowry is when money is paid by the bride/bride's family to the groom/groom's family.

What was the religious and moral landscape of pre-islamic Arabia?

Pre-Islamic Arabia had a loose religion centered around nature spirits and a vague concept of "Allah." Morality was derived from tribal customs and unwritten codes

Who founded Mecca, and what was the significance of the Ka'ba?

Mecca was founded by the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe. The Ka'ba, located in Mecca, was a focal point for truces among warring tribes and held significant religious importance

What influence did Muhammad's interactions with Christians and Jews have on him?

Muhammad's trips north exposed him to Christians and Jews, which influenced his religious views and understanding

What concerns did Muhammad have about Meccan society before his first revelations?

Muhammad was concerned about the tensions between the common Bedouins and the newly rich elite in Meccan society

What significant event marked the beginning of Muhammad's prophetic mission?

In 610 CE, Muhammad received his first revelations from Allah through the angel Gabriel, marking the beginning of his prophetic mission

What was the hijra, and why was it significant?

The hijra was Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. It marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar and the establishment of the first Islamic community (umma)

What led to the eventual acceptance of Islam by the Umayyads and Meccans?

A treaty in 629 CE allowed Muhammad and his followers to visit the Ka'ba, leading to the smashing of the shrines in Ka'ba and the gradual conversion of the Umayyads and Meccans to Islam

How did Muhammad's early followers respond to persecution in Mecca?

Muhammad's early followers faced persecution from the Umayyad clan in Mecca, which led to the hijra to Medina, where they established the first Islamic community and began raids on Meccan caravans.

4. fasting: during the holy month of Ramadan

1. statement of faith: "There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his Prophet."

2. prayer: five times a day toward Mecca

3. zakat (alms) : charity for the poor

4. fasting: during the holy month of Ramadan

5. hajj (pilgrimage): traveling to Mecca at least once in one's life

What were the basic principles of early Islam that appealed to Arabs?

The basic principles included no priests or hierarchy, uniting divided clans under one umma, shari'a based on the Qur'an, existing legal codes, and hadiths. It emphasized equality before Allah, channeling aggression outward, charity, fair business dealings, and Mecca as a religious center.

How did Islam build on Jewish and Christian foundations?

Islam built on Jewish and Christian foundations through radical monotheism, considering the Qur'an as the word of God with 114 suras, using hadiths to inform law, recognizing Muhammad as the seal of the prophets, and emphasizing egalitarianism, a sense of community, and legal codes.

Who were the "Four Rightly Guided Caliphs"?

Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali. They were the early leaders of the Muslim community after Muhammad's death, responsible for consolidating power, expanding the Islamic state, and guiding the community through early challenges

What was the role of a Caliph in early Islam?

A Caliph was the political and spiritual leader of Islam, responsible for leading the Muslim community, maintaining religious and legal order, and expanding Islamic territory through conquests

What were the causes and consequences of the war over Caliph succession in 656 CE?

The war over Caliph succession in 656 CE was caused by rival claims between supporters of Ali (Muhammad's family) and supporters of Umayyad Mu'awiya. This led to battles until the Umayyads claimed victory, resulting in deep divisions between Sunnis and Shi'a, which were further intensified by the martyrdom of Hussein at Karbala in 680 CE

What factors contributed to the rapid expansion of the Islamic state into Egypt, Byzantine, and Persian territories?

The rapid extension was facilitated by jihads, the promise of "breads and dates,", taxes, aggression, and the weakness of Persian and Byzantine control over local populations

Where did the Umayyads rule from, and what characterized their state?

The Umayyads ruled from Damascus, creating an Arab conquest state with an Arab bureaucracy. Their rule was marked by rapid expansion into Spain and India, competing with existing religions

What was the status of mawali (new converts) and dhimmi under the Umayyad rule?

Mawali (new converts to Islam) still had to pay the jizya, a tax for non believers. Most subjects were dhimmi "people of the book" (Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians), who were granted freedom of worship under Umayyad rule

What events led to the decline of Umayyad power and the rise of the Abbasids?

By 750 CE, the Umayyads became more aloof and embraced luxury, leading to discontent among the population. 50,000 Abbasids in Merv, angered by taxes and corruption, garnered support from the Shi'a and the mawali. They achieved victory at the Battle on the River Zab and murdered the Umayyad family.

How did the Umayyad control change after the Abbasid victory?

After the Abbasid victory and the murder of the Umayyad family, Umayyad control was confined to the Caliphate of Cordoba in Spain

When was the Abbasid dynasty?

750-1258 CE

What role did Baghdad play during the Abbasid era?

Baghdad was the center of culture, extravagance, and luxury for the caliphs, known for its harems and secular atmosphere with open alcohol consumption and sexual liberalness. It was the heart of the Golden Age of Islamic culture, depicted in "The Thousand and One Nights"

What is a harem

the separate part of a Muslim household reserved for wives, concubines, and female servants.

Who were al-Mahdi and Harun al-Rashid, and what were their contributions to the Abbasid Caliphate?

Al-Mahdi and Harun al-Rashid were notable Abbasid caliphs. Harun al-Rashid, associated with "The Thousand and One Nights," was known for his era of excessive luxury and political distance, contributing to the growing decline of the Abbasid Caliphate. His son, al-Ma'mum, founded an observatory and promoted the translation of Greek works.

What internal and external threats did the Abbasid Caliphate face during its decline?

The Abbasid Caliphate faced threats from Shi'a rebels, impoverished poor, bureaucratic corruption, and fighting among families and clans. They over relied on Persian advisors and mercenary Turk slaves, with the Mamluks becoming the power behind the throne. They were eventually overrun by armies of splinter dynasties like the Selijuk Turks. Additionally, there was the silting of the Tigris and Euphrates, leading to food shortages and fragmentation. Ho

How did the Selijuk Turks impact the Abbasid Caliphate in 1055?

In 1055, the Seljuk Turks, nomads from Central Asia, overran the Abbasid Caliphate. The Seljuk Sultan assumed military control of much of the Middle East, stabilizing the region, bringing an end to Sunni-Shiite conflicts, revitalizing Islamic law and institutions.

How did the Abbasid Caliphate address the cultural and administrative influence of Persians?

The Abbasid Caliphate incorporated Persian Influence into their administration, leading to a more elaborate bureaucracy and the rise of the Persians close to the throne as real power holders. The capital was moved to Baghdad in 762, reflecting Persian Influence.

How did the Abbasid Caliphate manage its vast empire?

It managed its empire through an elaborate bureaucracy led by a council called the diwan and a prime minister known as the Vizier.

When were the Crusades?

1100-1300

What were the main motivations behind the Crusades launched by Europe, and what significant event occurred in Jerusalem?

The Crusades were launched by Europeans seeking glory, wealth, and salvation. Their primary objectives were to stop the expansion of Muslim states, to reclaim for Christianity the Holy Land in the Middle East, and to recapture territories that had formerly been Christian. Despite mostly ending in failure, the Crusaders briefly conquered Jerusalem, encountering Muslims who were often at war with each other. Saladin led a jihad to reclaim the city.

How did the Crusades affect trade and knowledge transfer between Western Europe and the Muslim world?

The Crusades renewed trade contact with Western Europe, bringing back classical learning, advanced medical, scientific, philosophical, and mathematical knowledge, as well as spices and textiles

What was the significance of the Umayyad dynasty emir on the Iberian peninsula, and what innovations spread to Europe from Cordoba?

The Umayyad dynasty emir on the Iberian peninsula established the capital of Cordoba as an artistic and intellectual center with many libraries. Innovations such as glass mirrors, artesian wells, and windmills spread to Europe from Cordoba

What led to the decline of the Umayyad dynasty in Iberia and the end of Muslim rule?

The decline of the Umayyad dynasty in Iberia was caused by civil wars, conflicts with Christians to the north, and the hardline stance of the Almoravids.

What developments did the expansions in trade encourage in urban centers during the Islamic golden age?

Expansions in trade encouraged the growth of urban centers with hospitals, mosques, universities, and markets. This led to the rise of professional classes such as doctors, scholars, legal experts, and artisans. Cities were typically organized with separate quarters for Christians, jews, and Muslims, and were dominated by palaces and mosques. Homes were made of brick with courtyards.

How did social structures and the treatment of women change over time in the Islamic world?

While the society was generally egalitarian, there was widespread slavery. Over time, especially in cities, the treatment of women worsened with practices like forced veiling and seclusion being adopted from Persian culture. Polygyny was practiced, homosexuality was forbidden, and the role of women was limited, especially through the institution of the harem.

What were the key trade goods and routes that revived the Afro-Eurasian trade network?

Key trade goods included West African gold and salt, Chinese silk and porcelain, East African ivory and gold, South Asian cotton, sugar and spices, Egyptian grain and cotton, and Spanish olives and wine. Trade routes included overland routes like the Trans-Saharan and Silk Road, and Indian Ocean routes using dhows. Innovations like banking, credit, paper, Indian numerals, dhows with lateen sails, and the Chinese compass facilitated this trade, leading to renewed cultural interactions and the spread of ideas

What is a Dhow?

Dhow is a term for various types of sailing boats found in the Arabian sea and along the east African coast. They have lateen sails and narrow hulls ideal for monsoon winds that blow seasonally across the ocean.

How did the lack of Arab traditions of written texts influence Islamic scholarship?

The lack of Arab traditions of written texts led to receptivity to influences from the Mediterranean and Persia. Efforts were made to preserve, comment on, and elaborate on Greek and Roman literature. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad became a center of learning, and paper and block printing from China stimulated scholarship.