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What was a common factor among many leaders of nationalist movements in response to European imperialism?

Many had European-style educations and were influenced by Enlightenment ideals like natural rights, sovereignty, and nationalism.

How did anti-imperial resistance sometimes lead to new states?

Resistance movements often evolved into full nationalist revolts, leading to independence or new political entities.

Nationalist Movements in the Balkans

How did the decline of the Ottoman Empire affect nationalism in the Balkans?

Inspired by the French Revolution, ethnic nationalism emerged as Balkan peoples sought independence.

What was the significance of the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) in the Balkans?

It resulted in the Treaty of Berlin, which freed Bulgaria, Romania, and Montenegro but placed Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian control.

Resistance and Rebellion in the Americas
Cherokee Nation

How did the Cherokee attempt to assimilate into white American culture?

They adopted colonial farming, weaving, and building techniques, created a syllabic alphabet, and established a constitution based on the U.S. Constitution.

What happened to the Cherokee despite their assimilation efforts?

After the discovery of gold in 1829, they were forced to relocate under the Indian Removal Act of 1830, leading to the Trail of Tears.

Ghost Dance Movement

What was the purpose of the Ghost Dance movement?

It was a spiritual movement in which Native Americans believed that performing rituals would bring back the dead to drive out white settlers.

How did the Ghost Dance movement end?

It was violently suppressed in the Wounded Knee Massacre (1890), marking the end of the Indian Wars.

Túpac Amaru II Revolt

Who was Túpac Amaru II?

A hereditary chief in Peru, educated by Jesuits, and a descendant of the last Inca ruler.

What event triggered the last major Indian revolt against Spain?

Túpac Amaru II arrested and executed a colonial administrator for cruelty in 1780.

What was the outcome of the Túpac Amaru II rebellion?

It spread through Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina but was crushed. Túpac Amaru II and his family were executed in 1781.

French Intervention in Mexico

Why did Napoleon III interfere in Mexico?

He wanted to expand French influence and supported conservative Mexicans against Benito Juárez.

What was the result of the French intervention?

Mexicans defeated the French, executed Emperor Maximilian in 1867, and Benito Juárez resumed the presidency.

South Asian Resistance
Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny)

What sparked the Indian Rebellion of 1857?

The use of rifle cartridges greased with cow and pig fat, which angered both Hindus and Muslims.

What were the consequences of the rebellion?

The British crushed the uprising, dissolved the Mughal Empire, and took direct control of India under the British Raj.

What organization was formed in 1885 as a result of growing nationalism in India?

The Indian National Congress, initially for grievances but later calling for self-rule.

Southeast Asian Resistance
Vietnamese Resistance

Who was Emperor Ham Nghi, and what did he do?

A Vietnamese emperor whose advisors resisted French rule; he was later captured and exiled.

How long did resistance to the French continue?

Until 1895, under Phan Dinh Phung, who became a hero for future Vietnamese revolutionaries.

Philippine Resistance

What was Liga Filipina?

A reform movement started by José Rizal in 1892, loyal to Spain but advocating for Filipino rights.

What happened after José Rizal’s execution?

It inspired the Philippine Revolution (1896) against Spanish rule.

How did the Philippines come under U.S. control?

After the Spanish-American War (1898), Spain ceded the Philippines to the U.S. in the Treaty of Paris.

What was the Philippine-American War (1899-1902)?

A war between Filipino revolutionaries and the U.S. The U.S. won, and the Philippines remained under American control until 1946.

Resistance in Australia and New Zealand
Australia (Aboriginal Resistance)

What was the status of Aboriginal people under British colonial rule?

They were not considered British subjects and had no legal land rights, leading to violent conflicts with settlers.

New Zealand (Maori Resistance)

What was the Treaty of Waitangi (1840)?

An agreement in which Britain promised to protect Maori land rights.

How did conflicts arise despite the treaty?

The British pressured the Maori to sell land, leading to wars from the 1840s-1872, which ended with the Maori losing most of their land.

African Resistance
Sokoto Caliphate (West Africa)

Who founded the Sokoto Caliphate?

Usman dan Fodio in 1804, as part of a movement to purify Islam.

What was its economic foundation?

The slave trade, despite British efforts to abolish it.

How did the Sokoto Caliphate end?

The British conquered it in 1903 and made it part of Nigeria.

South African Resistance

What was the Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement (1856-1857)?

The Xhosa believed that killing their cattle and destroying crops would drive out British settlers.

What was the result of the Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement?

It caused famine and death but did not remove the British.

Anglo-Zulu War (1870s)

What was the Zulu Kingdom's status before British conquest?

A centralized and militarily powerful state.

What happened in the Anglo-Zulu War?

The Zulus initially resisted but were eventually defeated, and their territory was absorbed into British South Africa.

Samory Touré's Wars (West Africa)

Who was Samory Touré?

A Mande chieftain who built a kingdom in Guinea and resisted French colonization.

What happened to Samory Touré?

After prolonged resistance, he was captured by the French in 1898 and exiled.

Mahdist Revolt (Sudan)

Who was Muhammad Ahmad, and what did he claim?

A Sudanese Islamic cleric who declared himself the Mahdi ("guided one") to restore Islamic rule.

What happened during the Mahdist Revolt?

The Mahdists overthrew British-Egyptian rule in 1885 but disintegrated after Ahmad's death.

How did the British respond?

They reconquered Sudan in 1896.