Chapter 11: The Developing Mind: Life Span Development

Based on notes

To form an autobiographical memory

children must have a sense of self

The study of human development

considers changes in behaviour that correlate with growth or maturation

Different stages of life - three interwoven threads

1. Physical development

2. Cognitive development

3. Social/emotional development

Epigenetic factors

diet, nurture, and stress

Two types of development

continuity and discontinuity

Continuity

Gradually and smoothly over time

Discontinuity

Changes more abruptly from one stage to the next

First two gestational weeks

developing organism is known as a zygote

Second gestational week

the zygote completes its journey through the mother's fallopian tube to the uterus - implants in the lining

During gestational weeks three through eight

we use the term embryo

After gestational week eight

we use the term fetus

First gestational week

the zygote differentiates into three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

Ectoderm

develops into nerve tissue and skin

Mesoderm

gives rise to muscle and bone

Endoderm

source of the body's soft tissue - such as the organs of the digestive tract

Gestational week four

the central nervous system has differentiated into forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord

Gestational week six

expression of a gene on the Y chromosome initiates the differentiation of sex - testes or ovaries

Gestational week seven

cells that will form the cerebral cortex move from the lining of the neural tube

Embryonic stage

nervous system, heart, stomach, liver, and other organs are formed during this period

Gestational month three

reproductive organs differentiate and new neurons are born in large numbers - start forming connections with one another

Gestational month six

Myelination of the nervous system begin

Gestational month seven

Most of the brain's cells have been formed

Most pregnancies last about 40 weeks

babies born between gestational weeks 37 and 42 are considered typical or term births

Babies born before 28 weeks of gestation

known as "micro preemies" and often do not survive

Placenta

organ attached to the wall of the mother's uterus that provides the fetus with nutrients and oxygen - protects fetus from exposure to toxins

Teratogen

Any agent that can produce harmful effects in the zygote, embryo, or fetus

Alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

• Comprised of three alcohol-related diagnoses:

  • fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

  • partial fetal alcohol syndrome (pFAS)

  • alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder

FAS symptoms

nose and mouth abnormalities, and a small head circumference, reduced IQ, attention problems, and poor impulse control

HIV

can be passed from mother to child during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding

Newborns

birth to 28 days - spend 16/18 hours per day sleeping - most newborns also spend 2/3 hours crying - sometimes they cry for no reason

Rooting reflex

If an object is placed in the mouth, babies begin to suck reflexively

Grasping reflex

Reflexively grasp any object placed in the hand, voluntary grasping of objects

Stepping reflex

If parents hold newborns upright with their feet touching a surface they do a stepping motion

Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)

individual with male genetic sex (XY) cannot respond to circulating male hormones, leading to female external appearance

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

exposes the fetus to excess male hormones, might masculinize the external genitalia of genetic females

Habituation

the type of learning in which we reduce responding to repeated stimuli

Infants show a preference for looking at faces

further social behaviour and language learning

Young infants do not see detail at a distance as well as adults do

infants need more contrast than adults to see well

Latter months of pregnancy and first 18 months of life

the human brain shows rapid growth in grey matter or collections of neural cell bodies

Pruning

Cells and connections that are not useful are systematically deleted

Motor development occurs in 2 directions

head-to-toe direction and midline that goes outward

Piaget's theory

Two types of adjustments can be made to a schema - Assimilation and Accommodation

Assimilation

no changes to the existing schema are required to add the new instance

Accommodation

the schema must be adapted to fit the new information

The Sensorimotor Stage (0 - 2)

sensations immediately evoke motor responses for infants

Primary circular reactions (I to 4 months of age)

are actions that involve the infants' own body

Secondary circular reactions (4 to 8 months of age)

involve objects other than one's own body

Tertiary secondary reactions

which begin around the infant's first birthday, involve trial-and-error experimentation

The Preoperational Stage (2 - 6)

children are still incapable of engaging in internal mental operations or manipulations

The Concrete Operational Stage (6 - 12)

problems of conservation are easily solved and thinking becomes more logical

The Formal Operational Stage (above 12)

ability to handle abstract concepts

Lev Vygotsky

stressed the role of culture and cultural differences in the development of the child

Zone of proximal development

ideal conditions for learning - when a child is faced with a task that they can accomplish with the assistance of more knowledgeable people

Scaffolding

involves the parent or teacher being responsive to the needs of the child and providing guidance that matches the learner's needs

Significant changes in memory abilities after age 2

due to maturation of brain structures

Amygdala & hippocampus mature early (6 months)

Changes in frontal lobe & hippocampus (age 3)

Egocentrism

Young children struggle with understanding others' viewpoints

Theory of Mind (TOM)

Recognizing that others have different beliefs, desires, and intentions

Premack's argument

TOM evolved from abilities seen in apes

False belief task

("Sally-Anne") used to test TOM in 3-4 year olds

TOM deficits

linked to Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Mary Rothbart

divided temperament into three categories:

1. Urgency or extraversion - degree of child’s - happy, active, vocal, and social behaviour

2. Negative affect - proneness to anger, fear, sadness, and frustration

3. Effortful control - ability to pay attention and inhibit behaviour

Temperament

shapes how children interact with their environment and elicit responses from caregivers

Secure Attachment

Child is distressed when the mother leaves but easily comforted when she returns

Anxious-Avoidant

No distress when mother leaves, accepts comfort from stranger, avoids mother upon return

Anxious-Resistant

Always uneasy, highly distressed when mother leaves - alternates between clingy and rejecting upon return

Disorganized Attachment

Confused, contradictory behaviors (ex. approaching mother while walking backward)

Responsive parents

Teach children the world is predictable & safe - Children feel secure exploring

Unresponsive/inconsistent parents

Teach children the world is unpredictable - Children stay close, hesitant to explore

Authoritative Parenting

(High support + High regulation) - parents are consistent, firm, warm, & reasonable - encourage feedback but maintain clear authority - ideal

Authoritarian Parenting

(Low Support, High Regulation) - prepares children for societal authority figures - more likely to use harsh punishments - can lead to rebellion

Indulgent Parenting

(High Support, Low Regulation) - warm & loving but avoids enforcing rules - relies on teachers, neighbors, & law enforcement to set boundaries

Lower monitoring

Higher antisocial behavior in children

Puberty

hormonal surge - maturity of reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics

Puberty in males

Muscle growth, genital maturity, facial hair, deeper voice (larynx growth)

Puberty in females

Breast growth, genital and uterine maturity, fat redistribution

Gray matter growth peaks at 11–12 years

thins during teen years

Excessive gray matter loss

Linked to early-onset schizophrenia (4x more frontal lobe loss)

Myelination of frontal lobes

continues into 23–30 years

Kohlberg

To assess changes in moral reasoning - gave people ethical dilemas and asked for reasoning participants gave

Kohlberg identified three major stages in moral reasoning

1. Preconventional morality stage - moral choices based on their expectations of reward and punishment (Children and young adolescents)

2. Conventional morality - rules are seen as governing moral behaviour and are followed - sensitive to public opinion (Adulthood)

3. Postconventional morality - the individual now recognizes that rules are made by humans can be flawed - few people attain this

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

developed a life-span model of psychosocial development (stages from infancy to old age)

Despite stereotypes of miserable parents

most report higher happiness than nonparents

Marital satisfaction

drops after childbirth but rebounds as children gain independence

Evolutionary theory suggests grandmothers caring for grandchildren

allowed parents to focus on other survival tasks

Menopause

Typically complete by early 50s (but fertility declines much earlier)

Common menopause symptoms

Irregular menstrual cycles, hot flashes, night sweats, headaches, joint pain, mood swings, sleep disturbances

Hormone treatments used cautiously due to risks

stroke, heart attack, breast cancer, dementia

Men experience gradual reproductive changes throughout life

sperm quantity decreases - men in their 80s remain half as fertile as men at 25 - testosterone levels remain stable