Studied by 4 people
Based on notes
To form an autobiographical memory
children must have a sense of self
The study of human development
considers changes in behaviour that correlate with growth or maturation
Different stages of life - three interwoven threads
Physical development
Cognitive development
Social/emotional development
Epigenetic factors
diet, nurture, and stress
Two types of development
continuity and discontinuity
Continuity
Gradually and smoothly over time
Discontinuity
Changes more abruptly from one stage to the next
First two gestational weeks
developing organism is known as a zygote
Second gestational week
the zygote completes its journey through the mother's fallopian tube to the uterus - implants in the lining
During gestational weeks three through eight
we use the term embryo
After gestational week eight
we use the term fetus
First gestational week
the zygote differentiates into three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
Ectoderm
develops into nerve tissue and skin
Mesoderm
gives rise to muscle and bone
Endoderm
source of the body's soft tissue - such as the organs of the digestive tract
Gestational week four
the central nervous system has differentiated into forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord
Gestational week six
expression of a gene on the Y chromosome initiates the differentiation of sex - testes or ovaries
Gestational week seven
cells that will form the cerebral cortex move from the lining of the neural tube
Embryonic stage
nervous system, heart, stomach, liver, and other organs are formed during this period
Gestational month three
reproductive organs differentiate and new neurons are born in large numbers - start forming connections with one another
Gestational month six
Myelination of the nervous system begin
Gestational month seven
Most of the brain's cells have been formed
Most pregnancies last about 40 weeks
babies born between gestational weeks 37 and 42 are considered typical or term births
Babies born before 28 weeks of gestation
known as "micro preemies" and often do not survive
Placenta
organ attached to the wall of the mother's uterus that provides the fetus with nutrients and oxygen - protects fetus from exposure to toxins
Teratogen
Any agent that can produce harmful effects in the zygote, embryo, or fetus
Alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
Comprised of three alcohol-related diagnoses:
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
partial fetal alcohol syndrome (pFAS)
alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder
FAS symptoms
nose and mouth abnormalities, and a small head circumference, reduced IQ, attention problems, and poor impulse control
HIV
can be passed from mother to child during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding
Newborns
birth to 28 days - spend 16/18 hours per day sleeping - most newborns also spend 2/3 hours crying - sometimes they cry for no reason
Rooting reflex
If an object is placed in the mouth, babies begin to suck reflexively
Grasping reflex
Reflexively grasp any object placed in the hand, voluntary grasping of objects
Stepping reflex
If parents hold newborns upright with their feet touching a surface they do a stepping motion
Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)
individual with male genetic sex (XY) cannot respond to circulating male hormones, leading to female external appearance
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
exposes the fetus to excess male hormones, might masculinize the external genitalia of genetic females
Habituation
the type of learning in which we reduce responding to repeated stimuli
Infants show a preference for looking at faces
further social behaviour and language learning
Young infants do not see detail at a distance as well as adults do
infants need more contrast than adults to see well
Latter months of pregnancy and first 18 months of life
the human brain shows rapid growth in grey matter or collections of neural cell bodies
Pruning
Cells and connections that are not useful are systematically deleted
Motor development occurs in 2 directions
head-to-toe direction and midline that goes outward
Piaget's theory
Two types of adjustments can be made to a schema - Assimilation and Accommodation
Assimilation
no changes to the existing schema are required to add the new instance
Accommodation
the schema must be adapted to fit the new information
The Sensorimotor Stage (0 - 2)
sensations immediately evoke motor responses for infants
Primary circular reactions (I to 4 months of age)
are actions that involve the infants' own body
Secondary circular reactions (4 to 8 months of age)
involve objects other than one's own body
Tertiary secondary reactions
which begin around the infant's first birthday, involve trial-and-error experimentation
The Preoperational Stage (2 - 6)
children are still incapable of engaging in internal mental operations or manipulations
The Concrete Operational Stage (6 - 12)
problems of conservation are easily solved and thinking becomes more logical
The Formal Operational Stage (above 12)
ability to handle abstract concepts
Lev Vygotsky
stressed the role of culture and cultural differences in the development of the child
Zone of proximal development
ideal conditions for learning - when a child is faced with a task that they can accomplish with the assistance of more knowledgeable people
Scaffolding
involves the parent or teacher being responsive to the needs of the child and providing guidance that matches the learner's needs
Significant changes in memory abilities after age 2
due to maturation of brain structures
Amygdala & hippocampus mature early (6 months)
Changes in frontal lobe & hippocampus (age 3)
Egocentrism
Young children struggle with understanding others' viewpoints
Theory of Mind (TOM)
Recognizing that others have different beliefs, desires, and intentions
Premack's argument
TOM evolved from abilities seen in apes
False belief task
("Sally-Anne") used to test TOM in 3-4 year olds
TOM deficits
linked to Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Mary Rothbart
divided temperament into three categories:
Urgency or extraversion - degree of child’s - happy, active, vocal, and social behaviour
Negative affect - proneness to anger, fear, sadness, and frustration
Effortful control - ability to pay attention and inhibit behaviour
Temperament
shapes how children interact with their environment and elicit responses from caregivers
Secure Attachment
Child is distressed when the mother leaves but easily comforted when she returns
Anxious-Avoidant
No distress when mother leaves, accepts comfort from stranger, avoids mother upon return
Anxious-Resistant
Always uneasy, highly distressed when mother leaves - alternates between clingy and rejecting upon return
Disorganized Attachment
Confused, contradictory behaviors (ex. approaching mother while walking backward)
Responsive parents
Teach children the world is predictable & safe - Children feel secure exploring
Unresponsive/inconsistent parents
Teach children the world is unpredictable - Children stay close, hesitant to explore
Authoritative Parenting
(High support + High regulation) - parents are consistent, firm, warm, & reasonable - encourage feedback but maintain clear authority - ideal
Authoritarian Parenting
(Low Support, High Regulation) - prepares children for societal authority figures - more likely to use harsh punishments - can lead to rebellion
Indulgent Parenting
(High Support, Low Regulation) - warm & loving but avoids enforcing rules - relies on teachers, neighbors, & law enforcement to set boundaries
Lower monitoring
Higher antisocial behavior in children
Puberty
hormonal surge - maturity of reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics
Puberty in males
Muscle growth, genital maturity, facial hair, deeper voice (larynx growth)
Puberty in females
Breast growth, genital and uterine maturity, fat redistribution
Gray matter growth peaks at 11–12 years
thins during teen years
Excessive gray matter loss
Linked to early-onset schizophrenia (4x more frontal lobe loss)
Myelination of frontal lobes
continues into 23–30 years
Kohlberg
To assess changes in moral reasoning - gave people ethical dilemas and asked for reasoning participants gave
Kohlberg identified three major stages in moral reasoning
Preconventional morality stage - moral choices based on their expectations of reward and punishment (Children and young adolescents)
Conventional morality - rules are seen as governing moral behaviour and are followed - sensitive to public opinion (Adulthood)
Postconventional morality - the individual now recognizes that rules are made by humans can be flawed - few people attain this
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
developed a life-span model of psychosocial development (stages from infancy to old age)
Despite stereotypes of miserable parents
most report higher happiness than nonparents
Marital satisfaction
drops after childbirth but rebounds as children gain independence
Evolutionary theory suggests grandmothers caring for grandchildren
allowed parents to focus on other survival tasks
Menopause
Typically complete by early 50s (but fertility declines much earlier)
Common menopause symptoms
Irregular menstrual cycles, hot flashes, night sweats, headaches, joint pain, mood swings, sleep disturbances
Hormone treatments used cautiously due to risks
stroke, heart attack, breast cancer, dementia
Men experience gradual reproductive changes throughout life
sperm quantity decreases - men in their 80s remain half as fertile as men at 25 - testosterone levels remain stable
