Key Thinkers and Theories in Education: Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism and Postmodernism

Functionalism

A sociological perspective that emphasizes the role of education in promoting social cohesion and stability through consensus and structural means.

Durkheim (1904)

Proposed that education teaches specialist skills and encourages social solidarity, exemplified by practices such as assemblies and the organic analogy.

Parsons (1950's)

Argued that education provides secondary socialization, teaching universalistic standards and is meritocratic, where hard work and talent lead to success.

Davis and Moore (1960's)

Suggested that education sifts and sorts pupils into appropriate jobs, facilitating role allocation and supplying the economy with necessary skills.

New Right

A set of political ideas advocating for traditional education methods and a small state, emphasizing parental choice and marketization.

Chubb and Moe

Proposed that marketization of education creates a paying customer mentality, where competition drives up standards.

Marxism

A sociological perspective that views education as a means of perpetuating class conflict and maintaining capitalist structures.

Althusser (1971)

Described education as an ideological state apparatus that perpetuates false class consciousness and legitimates capitalism.

Bowles and Gintis (1976)

Identified the correspondence principle, where school mirrors work, and argued that the hidden curriculum teaches obedience and passivity.

Myth of meritocracy

The belief that the education system is fair and rewards talent, which Bowles and Gintis argue is a false notion.

Bourdieu

Introduced concepts such as cultural capital, symbolic violence, and habitus, explaining how social class influences educational success.

Cultural capital

Possessing norms and values that lead to material rewards, such as exposure to theatre leading to higher aspirations.

Symbolic violence

The process by which working-class individuals feel that education is not meant for them.

Habitus

The expression of social class through body language and clothing, which may be negatively labeled.

Willis (1971)

Conducted group interviews with working-class boys who formed anti-school subcultures, learning to labor and preparing for low-paid jobs.

Feminism

A perspective that critiques the patriarchal nature of education, despite improvements since the 1990s.

Browne and Ross

Found that boys and girls perceive certain tasks as part of their 'gender domain', creating imaginary territories for male and female activities.

Sharpe

Noted a shift in girls' aspirations from the 1970s to the 1990s, moving towards career and education.

Weiner

Argued that the curriculum is a 'woman free zone', with women under-represented in subjects like history and science.

McRobbie

Studied girls' magazines and found a thematic shift from traditional roles to career-centered content from the 1970s to the 1990s.

Labelling

The process of attaching meaning to behavior, which can influence individual self-perception and outcomes.

Rosenthal and Jacobsen (1968)

Demonstrated that students labeled positively by teachers as 'spurters' can experience a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Education Reform Act 1988

Introduced GCSEs in maths and science, increasing the emphasis on coursework.

Ball

Suggested that setting and streaming encourages the formation of pupil subcultures.

Lacey

Described a two-stage process of differentiation (setting) and polarisation, leading to the formation of anti-school or pro-school subcultures.

Sewell

Identified that black male pupils respond to racist negative labelling in different ways: rebels, conformists, retreatists, and innovators.

Rutter

Conducted the Fifteen Thousand Hours study, showing that good teaching can significantly improve student outcomes and help overcome labels.

Postmodernism

Emerging in the 1980s, it rejects all types of educational frameworks and suggests we have gone beyond them.

Usher

Argued that education needs to be lifelong and flexible.

Thompson

Claimed that education should be customised, as a 'one-size-fits-all' approach is outdated and creates oppressive uniformity.

Globalisation

The process where the world is becoming more interconnected, leading to increased immigration and technology.

Kelly

Stated that education needs to prepare students to be skilled workers in the global market, with policies reflecting this need.

Ball (Universities)

Criticized the marketisation of universities, arguing they are becoming like businesses due to privatisation as part of globalisation.

Holborn

Posited that globalisation has a positive effect on education, making it more multicultural and promoting respect and tolerance.

Howard

Defined material deprivation as lacking resources that money can buy, which leads to educational success.

Flaherty

Noted that many students eligible for Free School Meals (FSM) reject them due to stigma, with 20% of those eligible not taking them.

Waldfogel and Washbrook

Identified that overcrowding and lack of study space at home, along with poor living conditions, contribute to educational underachievement.

Selection by mortgage

Gives middle class students the advantage of living nearer to better schools.

Parental attitudes

Argued to be crucial to outcomes according to Douglas.

Language use

Middle-class, educated parents use language that challenges their children according to Hubbs-Tait et al.

Speech codes

Bernstein identified restricted (w/c) and elaborated (m/c) speech codes, emphasizing that literacy is crucial.

Parental attitudes towards education

Feinstein noted that these attitudes vary between working class and middle class.

Cultural deprivation

Reay and Keddie argue that blaming parents' cultural deprivation is a victim blaming approach and that cultural deprivation is a myth.

Working class subcultural values

Sugarman identified values such as collectivism, immediate gratification, present-time orientation, and fatalism.

Cultural and social capital

Bourdieu stated that the middle class have better cultural and social capital.

Access to educational resources

Sullivan noted that middle class children access educational books and TV, giving them more cultural capital.

Victim blaming

Keddie argues that cultural deprivation is a myth and a form of victim blaming.

Policy evaluation

Whitty and Bernstein discussed the evaluation of policies.

Compensatory education policies

Policies like EMA, FSM, and Pupil Premium help but cannot overcome deep inequality and poverty.

Marketisation and parental choice

Gewirtz evaluated that these only benefit middle-class parents and students.

Cost of transport

A factor that affects access to better schools for working class students.

Social class

A categorization of individuals based on economic status and social hierarchy.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A belief or expectation that influences behavior in a way that causes the belief to come true.

Dunne and Gazeley

Researchers who found that schools normalize the underachievement of the working class, leading to low expectations.

Becker

A sociologist who identified that middle class students fit the 'ideal pupil' identity.

Rosenthal and Jacobsen

Researchers known for their work on the Pygmalion effect, demonstrating how teacher expectations influence student performance.

Gillborn and Youdell

Researchers who discussed setting and streaming based on notions of ability, and the A-C economy.

A-C economy

A system where schools prioritize students likely to achieve A-C grades, often leading to educational triage.

Educational triage

The process of categorizing students based on their perceived ability to succeed academically.

Archer

A researcher who noted that uniforms and rules are seen as symbolic violence, with Nike identities as a response.

Evans

A researcher who found that working class girls from London comprehensive schools were reluctant to apply to elite universities.

Bartlett

A researcher who stated that marketisation leads to selection by schools, resulting in cream-skimming and silt-shifting.

Gilborn and Youdell

Researchers who indicated that the A-C economy is a product of marketisation.

Lupton

A researcher who found that Chinese and Indian parents enforce stricter discipline compared to white working class parents.

Keddie

A researcher who criticized cultural deprivation theories as being victim-blaming.

Bialystok

A researcher who found that EAL students often outperform monolingual students in school.

McCulloch

A researcher who noted that ethnic minority pupils are more likely to aspire to attend university.

Driver

A researcher who argued that cultural deprivation theory overlooks the positive effects of ethnicity and achievement.

Palmer

A researcher who found that ethnic minority groups are significantly more likely to live in poverty.

Bramley

A researcher who found that black people are 3.5 times more likely to experience homelessness than white British individuals.

Wood

A researcher who found that ethnic minorities face discrimination in employment and application procedures.

Archer (internal)

A researcher who noted that black and Asian pupils are demonized while white middle class pupils are viewed as ideal.

Connolly

A researcher who found that teachers have stereotypically high expectations of Asian boys.

Wright

A researcher who found that Asian students are often perceived as incapable by their teachers.

Gillborn and Youdell (internal)

Researchers who highlighted the existence of an ethnocentric curriculum and institutional racism in schools.

Fuller

A researcher who found that black girls in a London school experienced a self-negating prophecy.

Sewell (internal)

A researcher who identified varied subcultural responses among black boys to negative labeling.

Troyna and Williams

Researchers who discussed how ethnic minority pupils are less likely to be selected for better schools.

Reay

A researcher who found that working class and ethnic minority girls still aspire to gender-stereotyped roles.

Bedroom culture

A socialization process that influences girls' behavior and identity.

Neo-conventional families

Families where women have the opportunity to work, inspiring girls.

Crisis of masculinity

A situation where the loss of traditional masculine jobs leads male students to feel fatalistic about their job prospects.

Gender - internal

Factors within the education system that affect gender performance.

Coursework performance

Girls do better in coursework due to paying more attention to detail.

GIST and WISE

Programs that encourage girls to achieve higher in STEM subjects.

Challenging sexism in education

Teachers actively work against sexism in school books and curriculums.

Negative attention to boys

Teachers give boys more attention, but it is often negative.

Liability students

Boys are more likely to be excluded and seen as problematic in schools.

Feminization of education

Education values feminine traits and has more female role models.

Laddish subcultures

Peer pressure among boys to be anti-school.

Gendered subject choice

Boys and girls are encouraged to pursue different subjects based on gender.

Gender domain

Tasks and activities are associated with traditional gender roles.

Attention to detail

Girls focus more on feelings and social aspects in tasks.

Dominance in science classrooms

Boys dominate science classrooms, often controlling equipment and space.

Double standard in sexual promiscuity

A societal norm where male promiscuity is accepted while female promiscuity is judged.

Hegemonic masculinity

Schools reinforce traditional male dominance and behaviors.

Economic, social and political issues

Factors that shape identity and oppress individuals in interconnected ways.

Self-exclusion from elite universities

Working class girls avoid elite universities to stay at home.

Interactions effect

Certain combinations of class, gender, and ethnicity have varying impacts on performance.

Marketisation of education

The process that leads to an A-C economy and educational triage.