british empire to french indian war

empire

The British Empire's relationship with its American colonies evolved over time, and various factors influenced this relationship, including the Dominion, imposed royal authority, rebellion and its resolution, salutary neglect, and the powers of royal governors and colonial assemblies. Here's an overview of these elements:

1. Dominion of New England:

In the late 17th century, England established the Dominion of New England, which aimed to increase royal control over the American colonies. This initiative combined several New England colonies under a single administration, led by Sir Edmund Andros. The Dominion was seen as a way to impose royal authority, enforce Navigation Acts, and suppress local self-governance. It was met with resistance and discontent among the colonists.

2. Imposed Royal Authority:

The British government, at various times, attempted to increase its control over the American colonies. This included imposing royal governors, enforcing trade regulations like the Navigation Acts, and imposing taxes like the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts. These actions were often met with resistance from colonists who believed their rights as Englishmen were being violated.

3. Rebellion and Resolution:

Tensions between the British authorities and the American colonists eventually led to rebellion. The American Revolution (1775-1783) marked the culmination of these tensions. The colonies declared their independence from British rule, leading to the American Revolutionary War and the eventual recognition of the United States as an independent nation through the Treaty of Paris in 1783.

4. Salutary Neglect:

"Salutary neglect" refers to the British policy of allowing the American colonies a considerable degree of self-governance and limited enforcement of trade regulations before the mid-18th century. This policy was a result of the distance between Britain and the colonies and the preoccupation of the British government with other matters. During this period, the colonies developed a greater degree of self-reliance and autonomy.

5. Powers of Royal Governors:

Royal governors were appointed by the British Crown to oversee the administration of individual colonies. They had powers to enforce British laws, collect taxes, and manage colonial affairs. However, the extent of their authority often depended on local conditions and the degree of resistance from colonial assemblies and the public.

6. Powers of Colonial Assemblies:

Colonial assemblies were elected bodies in the American colonies responsible for making local laws, approving taxes, and managing internal affairs. They had significant influence over their respective colonies and played a crucial role in shaping colonial identity and resistance to British policies. These assemblies often clashed with royal governors over issues of taxation and self-governance.

In summary, the relationship between the British Empire and its American colonies was complex and evolved over time. It included periods of increased imperial control, resistance and rebellion, and ultimately the separation of the American colonies from British rule. Factors like the Dominion of New England, imposed royal authority, and the powers of colonial assemblies and royal governors all contributed to the dynamics of this relationship.

dominion

james the 2nd wanted to impose royal authority over the colonies, he saw as sources of money, to fund more authoritarian crown, consolidated all northern colonies to single colony called the dominion, they eliminated colonial legislatures, imposed a royal govener, assisted by lutenant gov and appointed counsel to run the new “super colony”. new regime was arbitary and centralized, reorginized the courts and the militia, raised high taxes, and challenged the legalisty of land titles, it was uniformily hated by the colonists, regardless of class. so in news of glorious revolution arrivedin the colonies in 1689, the colonists rose againts the revolt against the dominion, rebeliion united colonists and the elite, quickly and without bloodshed, rebels overthrew the gov, imprisoned dominion , and sought approval for actions from new king, new monarchs accepted the rebellion, worked out comprimised between imperial power and colonial autonomy, colonies retained their legislatures, but they had to accept royal gov appointed by london, military coordination under english leadership in time of war, colonists accepted the resolution, in doing so they recognized that they belong to rtransatlantic empire, which political, economic, cultural iniciative, primariyly from london, important to remember that colonists saw themselves as transplanted englishman not americans

englishmen enjoyed all the liberties, properties like english men in england, after 1689 crown excerised its powers lightly, no centralized gov was created for the colonies and thus allowed to run themselves, “solitary neglect”, colonies remained self governing for the rest of colonial period, ofc for resolution, london appointed royal governers for each colony

powers of royal governors, most of these aristocrasst were mediocre and incompetent , it was a dead end job “end of your career”, the governers had an absolute veto over colonial legislatures, they could appoint or remove colonial officials, command the militia, and grant pardons, most important of those powers was ability to appoint or remove officials, however this power was less and less available to the governers, as authorities in london took more control over colonial patranage, the governers had to share powers with the legislatures, the legislatures excersized more and more power, they controled colonial budget w right to vote on taxes and expenditures, and they had power to initiate legislation, able to expand power over governors bc they controlled governors salary which gave them leverage, this allowed the assemblies to expand power and influence, as a result self governmence became a right, by mid 18th century, colonies became largely self governing,

mercantilism

Mercantilism was an economic and political theory that guided European colonial policy in the 16th to 18th centuries. It had a significant impact on the relationship between the mother country (the colonial power) and its colonies. Here are key aspects of mercantilism in relation to these topics:

1. Basis of Wealth:

Mercantilism held that a nation's wealth and power were primarily based on the accumulation of precious metals, particularly gold and silver. The more gold and silver a nation possessed, the stronger it was perceived to be in economic and military terms.

2. Role of Government:

Mercantilism advocated for strong government involvement in the economy. Governments believed it was their duty to regulate and control economic activities to ensure the accumulation of wealth. This often meant implementing policies that promoted exports, limited imports, and protected domestic industries through tariffs, subsidies, and monopolies.

3. Focus of the Mother Country:

The mother country, or the colonial power, concentrated on extracting as much wealth as possible from its colonies. Colonies were seen as a means to achieve this goal by providing valuable raw materials, acting as markets for the mother country's goods, and serving as a source of revenue through taxation and trade regulation.

4. Reasons for Colonial Existence:

Mercantilism gave rise to two primary reasons for the existence of colonies:

a. Providing Raw Materials: Colonies were expected to supply the mother country with raw materials such as timber, minerals, fur, and agricultural products. These resources were essential for the growth of industries in the mother country.

b. Acting as Markets: Colonies served as captive markets for the mother country's manufactured goods. They were often required to purchase these goods from the mother country, even if they could produce similar items locally.

5. Role of Trade:

Trade played a central role in mercantilism. Governments tightly regulated trade to ensure a favorable balance of trade, meaning that a nation exported more than it imported. To achieve this balance, governments imposed tariffs on foreign goods, established monopolies, and encouraged the growth of colonies and colonial trade networks.

Mercantilism influenced colonial policies, the exploitation of colonies for resources and markets, and the establishment of trade systems that primarily benefited the colonial powers. It contributed to the economic and political tensions between the mother countries and their colonies, ultimately leading to conflicts and, in some cases, the drive for independence, as witnessed in the American colonies' quest for autonomy during the American Revolution.

if london had no interest in regulating political affair of its colonies, how does it see them and want to regulat?

it seized colonies in economic term, through prison of merchantilism, dominant of 18th century, merchantilism called for central gov of economic activity, means the gov undertook policies to make the economy take certain courses, the main goal, was to increase the nations store of precious metals; gold and silver',

this was accomplised by making britain economically self sufficient as possible, keeping all citizen buys producing items marketable to other lands, allowing it to sell more abroud than imported, britain concentrated producing goods for export, and limiting imports, in everyway possible, marchantalist systems colonies were very important so they could

1. to provide raw materials to industries

2. market for manufactured goods produced by britians industries

in this system, trade was a fundmental importants, since raw materials had to transported, when britain sought to regulate the colonies, it sought to regualate trade,

brit regulation

British regulation of trade and colonial affairs during the colonial period involved various mechanisms and policies. Here's how these elements were related:

1. The Board of Trade and Its Functions:

The Board of Trade and Plantations, established in 1696, was a British governmental body responsible for overseeing colonial affairs. It had three main functions:

a. Regulation of Trade: The Board was tasked with ensuring that trade between the American colonies and other parts of the British Empire followed the regulations set forth in various acts, including the Navigation Acts.

b. Colonial Administration: The Board provided advice and recommendations to the Crown on matters related to the administration of the American colonies, including issues of governance, boundary disputes, and land grants.

c. Economic Control: The Board played a role in managing the economic aspects of the colonies, such as the distribution of land, issuing patents, and overseeing the collection of customs duties.

2. Navigation Acts and Their Passage:

The Navigation Acts were a series of British laws passed over a period of approximately 50 years (late 17th to early 18th centuries) to regulate colonial trade. Three important points about these acts are:

a. Colonial Trade Restriction: The Navigation Acts were designed to restrict colonial trade to benefit the British mercantilist system. They required that most colonial imports and exports had to be transported on British ships and that certain goods could only be traded with England.

b. Enforcement and Control: The acts provided the legal framework for customs officials and naval authorities to enforce trade regulations, ensuring that the American colonies followed the rules set by the British government.

c. Economic Dependence: The Navigation Acts aimed to make the American colonies economically dependent on the mother country, which would supply the colonies with manufactured goods while securing raw materials and markets for English industries.

3. British vs. Colonial Interests:

The British interests in implementing these regulations were to strengthen their economic and political control over the American colonies, extract wealth from the colonies, and ensure that the colonies served as a source of raw materials and markets for British industries. The American colonies, on the other hand, often viewed these regulations as burdensome restrictions on their economic autonomy and trade opportunities.

4. Notoriously Inefficient System:

The colonial trade system under the Navigation Acts was notoriously inefficient and often plagued by smuggling and evasion of regulations. The vast coastline and geographical extent of the American colonies made effective enforcement challenging. Additionally, the system was unpopular among many colonists, leading to resistance and noncompliance.

5. British Acceptance of the Situation:

The British government accepted the inefficiency and evasion within the colonial trade system for several reasons:

a. Limited Resources: Britain had limited resources for enforcing trade regulations effectively in distant colonies.

b. Profitable Colonial Trade: Despite the inefficiencies, the trade between Britain and the colonies remained profitable for the British Crown and merchants.

c. Geopolitical Considerations: British authorities often focused on more immediate concerns, such as European conflicts and maintaining control over the empire, which sometimes took precedence over strict enforcement of colonial trade regulations.

In summary, British regulation of trade and colonial affairs, including the Navigation Acts, aimed to benefit the mother country economically and politically. Despite inefficiencies and colonial resistance, the British government often tolerated this situation due to practical constraints and the continued profitability of colonial trade.

board of trade

3 functions

1. nominated colonial govs and other officials,

2. reviewed all laws passed by colonial legislatures,, only about 5 percent of colonial laws were vetoed

3. served as intermediary for colonist, seeking to influence king and parliamentall the colonies sent agents to london, but they could not go directly to king and parliament by went through board fo trade

navigation acts- series of laws passes over 50 yrs to regulated trade,

1. reserved the entire trade of the colonies to british ships, so foreign ships could not trade with the colonies,

2. declared certain goods to be stratergically vital and thus could not be shipped out of the empire, goods like sugar, tobaco, furs, copper

3. all european products had to go to britain before being shipped cross the atlanic

these acts reflect view of empire,

first, brititsh and colonial interest clasesd, and british imtrests always prevailed, this was no a problem ad ins

over time as colonies grew and became more sophicsticated,

the system was notoriously inefficient this was something known at the time, smuggling became a respected profession and briberly of english officials was standard practice, why did british put up with this

answer” system worked and everyone was making money, british so no point in asserting thei authory, and would keep it u

new france

New France was a French colony in North America that existed from the early 17th century to the mid-18th century. Here's an overview of key aspects of New France:

1. Establishment of Quebec (1608):

In 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec, which became the capital of New France. This marked the beginning of French colonization in North America.

2. French Migration to New France and Discouragement:

French migration to New France was initially limited due to various factors, including the harsh climate, lack of incentives, and the French Crown's preference for the fur trade over permanent settlement. Many early settlers were fur traders and missionaries. To encourage more settlers, the French government introduced various incentives and subsidies.

3. Who Came:

The French settlers in New France, known as "habitants," were primarily farmers, fur trappers, and missionaries. Additionally, there were soldiers and government officials who played a role in maintaining French control over the colony.

4. Filles du Roi:

To address the gender imbalance in New France, where there were more men than women, the French Crown sponsored the arrival of "Filles du Roi" (Daughters of the King). These were young women who were given dowries and encouraged to marry in the colony, which helped to stabilize and grow the population.

5. Opportunity for Habitants:

Habitants in New France had the opportunity to acquire land and build farms, although this was not always easy due to the challenges of the northern climate. The fur trade was also a significant economic activity for many, as they traded furs with the indigenous peoples.

6. Two Goals:

New France had two main goals:

a. Expansion of Territory: French authorities aimed to expand their colonial holdings in North America and secure dominance in the fur trade.

b. Conversion of Natives: The French also sought to convert and "civilize" the indigenous peoples they encountered through missionary efforts, creating strong religious and cultural ties between the French and the natives.

7. Relations with the Natives:

French colonists generally had better relations with the indigenous peoples compared to their English and Spanish counterparts. They often adopted a more cooperative and mutually beneficial approach to trade and alliances. French Jesuit missionaries were active in their efforts to convert and integrate indigenous people into the French way of life. These relations contributed to a more collaborative and less confrontational coexistence in many areas.

However, the French population in New France remained relatively small compared to the English colonies, and the colony ultimately fell under British control in 1763 following the Treaty of Paris, ending the French and Indian War.

new france

france established quebec, year after found of jamestown , quebus on high bluff, easily defensible, beome captital city, moved south and explores, and they clamined lvery

the government prefered to keep suppy to laborrersn and military recuits in franzbanned prodistants from settles =ment in the colon, only a bein 16o, sought to recruit family 1st and then turn to single ppl , more ppl ine

only twelve ersonent fewer fermial, the crown and procided east women a clash grabbing family

america, expectated to mary within few weeks of their arrival, two men were returned to frnance, only married coulple intended to stay, by 1700 only 160,000 colonists in regranhc

lose who stayed improved status and standard of living excaping poverty

leag famersi

inlike peasant in ce

thye could hunt and fun and they lived i allthe

tenure was secure and could be passed to their heirs, amound they payed significantly small, new france fought from paradise, oppured opputunites to the men and women that staryed, french gov was not an outlet for excess population the colony existed for 2 rreasons 2 goals

1. convert the natives to french catholicism/christianity

2. fur trade, new france economic enterprise centered on fur trade and explore a lot of enterior of continent for new sources of furs, the natives captured the fur for them to trade for manufactured goods, and bc new france had a small population, colony needed natives to help them defend new france, bc the depended on these tribes, the french treated them w respect, presents and hospitality, they viewed the natives as necessary economic partners, iroquiois speaking ppl and algonquan tribes

to obtain furs french lived among the indians and often took native wives, studied local culture, at their food, protected them, the natives understood how indespensible they were for new france for th

so when france tried to mobilize them, they had hard bargain and french had no choice but to pay, the cultivated native support by building potes that made the natives welcome them, sparked contrast to the british who viewed indians as savages and causing them frequent wars.

the middle ground

The "middle ground" refers to a concept in the context of Native American and European interactions in North America. It represents a specific geographic area and a cultural and social space where these two groups came into contact and engaged in various forms of exchange. Here's how it relates to the areas of contact, exchange, the fur trade, and its impact on Native populations:

1. Area of Native & European Contact:

The middle ground was a region in the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley areas of North America, roughly from the late 17th century to the late 18th century. It was characterized by a significant amount of interaction between Native American tribes and European colonists, primarily the French and later the British.

2. A Place of Exchange:

The middle ground was a space where Native Americans and Europeans interacted, negotiated, and exchanged goods, ideas, and cultural practices. This exchange was a result of mutual dependency, as both groups sought to benefit from each other's resources and knowledge.

3. The Fur Trade:

The fur trade was a central component of the middle ground. Native American tribes, particularly those of the Great Lakes region, were skilled hunters and trappers, providing fur pelts of animals like beavers and muskrats. European colonists, especially the French, were eager to acquire these furs, as they were valuable in the European fashion market. This economic exchange of furs for European goods like metal tools, textiles, and firearms was a key element of the middle ground.

4. Impact on Natives:

The impact of the middle ground on Native American communities was significant and complex:

- Economic Changes: The fur trade brought economic changes to many Native tribes, as they became reliant on fur trapping and trading. Some tribes experienced economic prosperity, while others became more vulnerable to economic fluctuations.

- Cultural Exchange: The middle ground facilitated cultural exchange. Natives and Europeans often adopted aspects of each other's cultures, such as language, clothing, and religious practices.

- Diplomacy and Alliances: The middle ground was a space where tribes negotiated and formed alliances with European powers, particularly the French. This often involved Native tribes playing the French and British against each other to their advantage.

However, the impact of the middle ground was not uniformly positive for Native Americans. The fur trade disrupted traditional ways of life and, in some cases, led to overhunting and resource depletion. Additionally, the introduction of European diseases, such as smallpox, had devastating effects on Native populations. Ultimately, the dynamics of the middle ground were complex and had both positive and negative consequences for Native American communities, depending on the specific circumstances and regions involved.

1. Central Position: The Five Nation Iroquois, a powerful and influential indigenous confederacy located in the northeastern United States, occupied a central position in the middle ground. Their territory and influence extended across present-day New York and parts of neighboring states.

2. Nature of the Confederacy: The Five Nations (later expanded to become the Six Nations with the addition of the Tuscarora) formed a political and military confederacy. They included the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations. This confederacy played a pivotal role in the dynamics of the middle ground.

3. Beaver Wars: The Beaver Wars (ca. 1640s-1701) were a series of conflicts and campaigns primarily involving the Iroquois Confederacy and various Algonquian-speaking nations, as well as the Huron and French. These wars were driven by competition for control of the fur trade, particularly the beaver fur trade, which was a valuable commodity in European markets. The Iroquois aimed to dominate this trade and expand their influence.

4. The Hurons: The Huron Confederacy (Wendat) was a group of indigenous nations in the Great Lakes region and were one of the primary targets of the Iroquois during the Beaver Wars. The Iroquois, in their quest for control over the fur trade, waged a series of devastating campaigns against the Huron, which ultimately weakened and dispersed them.

5. The Algonquians: Various Algonquian-speaking tribes in the Northeast and Great Lakes regions, including the Algonquin, Ojibwa, and others, were also affected by the Beaver Wars and the territorial expansions of the Iroquois. Many Algonquian tribes were displaced, forced to migrate, or formed new alliances in response to Iroquois aggression.

6. Aggressive Neutrality: The French, who were allied with the Huron and other indigenous groups, sought to maintain a degree of control over the fur trade and mitigate the Iroquois threat. The French adopted a policy of "aggressive neutrality" by attempting to stay out of direct conflict with the Iroquois while supporting their indigenous allies in their struggles against the Iroquois.

7. Effect of Contact with Europeans: Contact with Europeans had profound and often detrimental effects on most indigenous peoples in North America. The introduction of European diseases, such as smallpox, led to devastating epidemics. Additionally, competition for fur resources, the fur trade, and the introduction of firearms disrupted traditional ways of life and social structures among many indigenous groups.

the middle ground

areaof native and european contact - neither full european of native, a new world created out of cultures of two groups, came whenever europeans and natives met as equals, indians hadgreat power and influence, primarily a place of exchange, colonists learned from the indians, indians adopted european technology took on white attitudes, liked metal items, copy drinking, clothings,

fur trade- was in some ways the perfect business arrargnement where both groups profitted, the colonists got what they saw as valuable furs for cheap european produts, natives saw tools ffor, it was deer skin that was most ubiquitous, the term “buck” became associated w money, demand for fur cause indians to became better hunters, and began having ideas about land, tribes shifted their villages to be near trade routes and waterways, tribes orginizations were altered as smaller tribes would join together in confederactions to gain more territory and access to m ore furs, so important that some indian groups tried to control it “5 nation iroquois” , this gave them central position between european empires,

1600 they numbered thirty thousand, the 5 iroquois tribe formed confederacy, this was not a european state or even alliance, the five tribes all mainted their full autonomy and independence, it was designed primarily to promote peace and harmony among themselves among the 5 tribes, and it did this successsfuly, ofc by doing so it led themt o direct their agression aoutward at other natives living around them, 5 nation iroquioic fought to control the fur trade known as the beaver wars, they targeted amongst the huron and allies to the north west, they defeated and launched series of attacks to the west, ohio river valley, pushes dozens of algonquian speaking tribes out of their lands, into a newely formed tribal region, the wars were destructive and they lost half their warriors, the wars so devastating that the iroquois would never fully recover so after 1700 they adopted policy of aggressive neutrality, they made peace with both the french and the english, and then exploited central geographic position by trading w both the french and the english but trefused to figiht either sidfe

they were able to maintain neutrality for half a centruy and alllowed them to get rich on the fut trade, but for both natives contact with europeans was not beneficial, their populations swere eserverly d=redduced by desisease and warfare,er they becoame depenedent on europeant rade good esp metal, which alterneded their economies and cultures, and they were pulled into emperial competietion between france and britain which reduced their power and influence,

imperial wars

The Imperial Wars, which include King William's War, Queen Anne's War, and King George's War, were a series of conflicts in North America in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. They were closely related to imperial rivalry between European powers, the Age of Limited War, and had far-reaching implications for the colonial territories involved. Here's how they are interconnected:

1. Imperial Rivalry:

The Imperial Wars were driven by the ongoing imperial rivalry between European powers, primarily Britain and France, as they vied for control of overseas territories, including North American colonies. These wars were part of a broader global struggle for imperial dominance and territorial expansion.

2. Age of Limited War:

The Imperial Wars occurred during what is often referred to as the "Age of Limited War." This concept reflects the nature of the conflicts during this period, which were characterized by limited objectives, frequent truces, and a focus on limited territorial gains rather than all-out destruction. These wars were part of a larger European context of power struggles.

3. King William's War (1689-1697):

King William's War, also known as the Nine Years' War in Europe, was the first of the Imperial Wars. It was primarily a conflict between the British and French colonies in North America. The war left feelings of mutual suspicion and set the stage for future conflicts, as it did not result in a clear resolution of territorial disputes.

4. Queen Anne's War (1702-1713):

Queen Anne's War was the North American theater of the War of Spanish Succession in Europe. It continued hostilities between the British and French colonies in North America and involved indigenous allies on both sides. The war's conclusion with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 had significant implications for territorial changes, including the transfer of Newfoundland and Acadia to British control.

5. King George's War (1744-1748):

King George's War was part of the larger War of the Austrian Succession in Europe. It once again pitted the British colonies against the French in North America. One of the notable events of this war was the capture of Louisbourg, a strategic French fortress in Nova Scotia, by the British. The war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.

6. Louisbourg and Far-reaching Implications:

The capture of Louisbourg during King George's War was a significant event with far-reaching implications. Although the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle returned Louisbourg to the French in exchange for other territories, it highlighted the strategic importance of North American colonies in European conflicts. The presence of British and French colonial populations in close proximity, coupled with disputed territories and conflicting interests, continued to create tensions and lay the groundwork for the more extensive conflict of the French and Indian War (1754-1763).

The Imperial Wars, due to their connections to imperial rivalries, had a lasting impact on the history of North America. They contributed to the ongoing struggle for dominance in the New World and set the stage for the more significant and decisive French and Indian War, which had profound implications for the future of the continent.

french indian war

The French and Indian War, which took place from 1754 to 1763, was a pivotal conflict in North America and part of the broader global conflict known as the Seven Years' War. It had significant implications for the balance of power in North America. Here's how it relates to various key elements and events:

1. The Ohio River Valley:

The conflict in the Ohio River Valley stemmed from competing claims to the region by both the British and the French. The area's strategic importance and valuable fur trade resources led to tensions and disputes.

2. English Traders:

British traders and settlers, particularly in the Ohio River Valley, were pushing westward into territory claimed by the French, leading to confrontations and competition for control of the region.

3. French Forts:

The French constructed a series of forts in the Ohio River Valley to assert their control over the region. Fort Duquesne (present-day Pittsburgh) was one of the most significant.

4. Virginia's Interest:

Virginia, a British colony, had a keen interest in the Ohio River Valley and sought to assert British claims in the region.

5. George Washington:

A young George Washington, then a Virginia militia officer, played a prominent role in the early stages of the war.

- First Expedition: Washington led a small force to deliver a message to the French at Fort Le Boeuf in 1753 to demand their withdrawal from the Ohio River Valley.

- Diplomacy: Washington's mission failed to prevent the French from expanding their presence, leading to increased tensions.

- Second Expedition: In 1754, Washington led an attack on a French scouting party, triggering the start of hostilities in North America.

- Military Force: Washington's actions and leadership marked the beginning of open warfare in North America, and he played a role in the early military engagements of the French and Indian War.

6. Fort Duquesne:

The British attempted to capture Fort Duquesne in 1755 but suffered a defeat at the hands of the French and their Native American allies.

7. Results:

The war initially favored the French, who had the support of many Native American tribes, particularly the Algonquian-speaking tribes.

8. Great Britain Takes Control:

In 1758, under the leadership of Prime Minister William Pitt, Great Britain adopted a new strategy for the war. Pitt focused on expanding the British military presence in North America and increasing financial support for the war effort.

9. General Edward Braddock:

General Edward Braddock led a British and colonial force in an expedition to capture Fort Duquesne in 1755.

10. Result of Braddock's Expedition:

Braddock's expedition ended in disaster, with his force suffering a major defeat at the Battle of the Monongahela in 1755.

11. France’s Native Allies:

France's Native American allies, led by figures like Pontiac, launched a series of massive attacks against colonial settlements, known as Pontiac's Rebellion, after the war.

12. Fort William Henry:

Fort William Henry in upstate New York was a site of conflict and was captured by the French in 1757.

13. Albany Plan:

In 1754, the Albany Congress proposed a plan for colonial unity, but it was not adopted. This early attempt at colonial cooperation foreshadowed future efforts.

14. William Pitt:

William Pitt, also known as Pitt the Elder, became Britain's Secretary of State and was instrumental in changing the course of the war.

15. Traditional Strategy vs. Pitt’s New Strategy:

Pitt shifted from the traditional British approach of relying on colonial militias to a new strategy of sending British regular troops and focusing on naval supremacy.

16. Three Parts to Pitt's Strategy:

Pitt's strategy had three main components: naval power, alliances with Native American tribes, and a greater commitment of British troops to North America.

17. Effect:

The shift in strategy led to British successes in North America, including the capture of key French forts and cities.

18. General James Wolfe:

In 1759, General James Wolfe led a successful British attack on Quebec, a major turning point in the war.

19. Louis Joseph de Montcalm:

French General Montcalm defended Quebec during the British siege.

20. Plains of Abraham:

The Battle of the Plains of Abraham near Quebec City in 1759 resulted in a British victory and the deaths of both Wolfe and Montcalm.

21. Victory's Impact:

The victory at Quebec made Britain the dominant power on the North American continent, and it ultimately led to the Treaty of Paris in 1763, in which France ceded much of its North American territory to Britain, effectively ending the French presence in North America.

aka 7 years war, unlike previous imperial wars that fought in europe, this war began in north america, and north american causes that spread to europe and rest of the world, becoming a world war, specific cause was control of ohio river valley, spec the east end west of penn, area occupied by indian refugee tribes, driven from og lands to the east, france long domminated the fur trade claiming region as theirs,

1740 george’s war, eng fur traders moved into the region, spec to challenge french dominance, built trading fort, convinced local natives to trade w them, natives were happy to do so, allowed them to play the french and british off, got better prices for trade goods, but put 2 imperial powers in direct contact for first time, initiated show down, french were not goonna let eng incursion stand, sent military force into region , destroyed english fort, prevent more english incursions they built string of forts, building them all the way south, essentially a wall to keep british out of ohio, members of virginia did not like this including governer, his planter elite partners wanted to buy ohio land which virginia claimed, they wanted to purchase land here to sell it to settlers, they even establish company to do this, french decision to fortify will prevent this, the gov and plain of france will not profit, gov decides to ward off french,

he chooses george washington, washington was middle son of a lower on the elite scale of virginia planters, his dad minor figure , his dad died he inherited little to nothing bc he was second son, washington had no education, his goal was to become officer of british army, did not achieve, but bc of his position, he knew the gov, and gov chose him for this mission, he journeyed into ohio in the middle of winter, gave his message for the french to stay out of ohio bc gov said it belonged to virginia, french not impressed, they told washington they would hold ohio and they did it, when washington returned w this message the gov abandoned diplomacy and thought military force needed to push french out of ohio, 150 man expedition he chose washington to lead this and in the militia, washinton had no military exp, george moves into ohio w small army and ordered to establish fort, french beat him to making a fort lmao, the french outnumbered them 4 to one, but george kept pushing, he defeated french recondecent party but then french attacked w full military force and george made to surrendor was humiliating end, bc they werent at war, wa and men were let go, when he came to virginia he was a hero and now this was start of war bc wa made the first strike, thus the french indian war began, most of the indians joined w the french, fearing the british settler land hunger, w/o the native france not able to defend colony,, but w native allies the french able to maintain their own and hold ohio valley, british mismanagement and eptitude, back in london they discovered they were at war with france, unexpected and unwanted, they nontheless embraced bc they hated french, this had been started by colonials alone, and london decided to care of war effort

they sent edward braddock, humorless and obese, veterin, brought w him 1400 breadcoats, he decides to capture fort ducane and brung washinton on board as an aid, formed militia, her formed huge army into forest of eastern pennsylvania, they blundered in smaller force of french and indians, who inhialated british amry suffered 1500 casualities and braddock died, humiliating debacle LOL, following this, the war spread to rest of the colonies, french armed native allies who unleashed brutal attacks, along the entrie frontier from maine to south carolina, british colonist unable to have successful defense, 3000 settlers killed and fled eastward for protection, line of setllement push back 150 miles, french also launched more traditional attacks on british forts, most famously fort william henry, upstate new york

french brought huge army of french soldiers and native allies which would offer 7days till french moved them to bring large seige guns that would bring fort down, british commander realized defeat and surrendered french paroled his army and promised they would not take up france for a year, this to make limited war, 8th limited war did not apply between europeans and natives, french natives came for captives and now being denied they were not gonna let that happen

natives fell upoon them, killing anyone who resisted, 200 killed,

britain colonies lacked orginization and coordination in military defense, benjiefrank made albany plan to create defense for colonies, form of colonial unionism, grand counsel, made up of elected delegates from each colony, presided over by general appointed by the king, would oversee matters of common defense, western a=expansion and indian affairs, would collect taxes to cover expenses, rejected by any colony and parliament bc none of them wanted to give up authority to this counsel thus idea died but british also failed to propose, colonies in britain finding it difficult to work together 150 yrs of solitary neglect hurt the war effort

after more defeat in europe, british gov fell and new gov came up with william pitt, he went insane in a decade, but was brilliant, unlike most he recognized the value of north america, realized crucial confrontation would be fought there and not in europe and pitt determined to expell france from north america but this would mean abandoning tradition british strat to concentraction british resources of men, material, and money in europe, letting the colonies fend for themselves, britian had done it for previous wars but now abandoning and doing opposites, getting british rescources in north america, set treasury to north america, 2nd he had colonist supply british force and raise voluntary militia to participate in the war, 3rd, he paised most of the native to trade good, to go neutral or join with the british against the french, he outspends the french for native loyalty and allies, he gets the iroquoi to abandon their neutralisty and side with the british against the french, basically his strat waas to increase british strength and weaken french, this was expensive and brit went into debt, british captured for ducane and key french forts, in 1759, general james wolfe attacked quebec, winter was comig and had to find a way to get behind quebec, discorovers it and realises that their men can climb cliffs they did this at night and in the morning , the plains of abraham, it was commanded

there was no way wolfe could maintain position in the winter, montcalm was gentlemen and took army out to meet wolfe on plains of abraham and battle of french erupted, french falls, and montcalm and wolfe are killed, the

death of wolfe, his victory made britain the dominant power on the north american continent

yrs later british captured montreal and all of new france was in british hands, britain won triumph after triumph, treaty of paris was signed, france see escept ne worealen,

spain gave florida to britain, it divided the continent between brit in east and spain in the weset

this war made britain the dominant power on the planet global empire, north america was moret important, meant britain fell heavily into debt the colonies, ppl praised british troops, hailing new young king, george the third

french indian results

The results of the French and Indian War had significant implications for the balance of power in North America and the global stage, and they were closely connected to various political and territorial shifts:

1. France Ceded North American Colonies to Great Britain:

The Treaty of Paris of 1763 marked the end of the French and Indian War. Under the terms of the treaty, France ceded almost all of its North American colonies to Great Britain. This included Canada and territory east of the Mississippi River.

2. Exception of New Orleans:

New Orleans and the area west of the Mississippi River were ceded to Spain as part of the treaty.

3. Spain Gave Florida to Britain:

In a separate agreement known as the Treaty of Paris of 1763, Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain. This change in territorial control was a part of the broader negotiations following the French and Indian War.

4. Great Britain's Emergence as a Dominant Power:

The results of the French and Indian War established Great Britain as the preeminent colonial power in North America. With control over Canada, the eastern territories, and Florida, Britain's colonial empire expanded significantly.

5. Britain's Heavy Debt:

While the victory in the war enhanced Britain's territorial holdings, it also left the British government heavily in debt. The cost of waging the war, maintaining a global empire, and managing the newly acquired territories placed a considerable financial burden on the British treasury.

The heavy debt incurred during the war and its aftermath played a significant role in the political and economic developments that followed, including issues related to taxation, colonial governance, and the events that would ultimately lead to the American Revolution. The desire to raise revenue from the American colonies to help cover these debts would contribute to the tensions that erupted into the Revolutionary War.

new brit empire

The establishment of the new British Empire in the aftermath of the French and Indian War had a profound impact on British policy, governance, and the broader political landscape. Here's how these elements relate:

1. The French and Indian War:

The French and Indian War, also known as the Seven Years' War, was a global conflict that took place from 1754 to 1763. It was the North American theater of a broader war between the British and French empires. The war resulted in Britain's victory and significant territorial gains in North America.

2. British Policy:

The British government faced new challenges after the French and Indian War, including the need to manage and govern the expanded North American territories. This period saw the formulation of British policies aimed at addressing these challenges.

3. Three Effects:

The French and Indian War had several key effects on the British Empire:

a. Territorial Acquisitions: Britain gained control of Canada, the Ohio River Valley, and Florida, which significantly expanded its North American empire.

b. Financial Strain: The cost of waging the war, along with the need to manage and defend the newly acquired territories, placed a heavy financial burden on Britain, leading to significant debt.

c. Increased Colonial Tensions: The war and the resulting policies, such as the Proclamation of 1763, which restricted westward colonial expansion, heightened tensions between Britain and its American colonies.

4. Britain's New Governing Strategy:

To manage the expanded North American territories and deal with the financial burden of the war, Britain adopted new governing strategies. These included efforts to raise revenue from the American colonies through taxation and increased imperial oversight.

5. King George III:

King George III ascended to the British throne in 1760, shortly before the end of the French and Indian War. His reign would encompass the period leading up to and during the American Revolution. He played a central role in the politics and policies of the era.

6. British Ministers:

Several British ministers and advisors were involved in shaping the policies of the post-war period. Key figures included Prime Minister George Grenville, who implemented the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act, and Charles Townshend, who introduced the Townshend Acts.

The aftermath of the French and Indian War set the stage for growing tensions between Britain and its American colonies. The efforts to raise revenue and exert greater control over the colonies ultimately contributed to the American Revolution, as American colonists resisted what they perceived as unfair and oppressive policies. This period in history would be marked by a series of events and actions that led to the declaration of American independence and the establishment of the United States.

loss of north americans brit empire

causes of american revolution

these were out of englands victory in french and indian war, affected brit policy in north america, 3 effects

1. war left brit w huge debt that had to be paid back,

2. new larger empire would be more costly to maintain, brit need money to pay for it

3. new american empire was more complex, requiring new system of administration beign treated as whole not string of seperate colonies,

this meant that old policy of solitarian neglect had to be abandoned, britain needed to redefine empire and move away from one based on colonial self gov, to new empire based on rule by emperial officials, appointed by london, this means that new gov strat was that london will now govern other colonies, this attempt to remove american colonies was essential cause of american revolution bc americans resisted this,

british officials were not up to the task,

king george the 3rd, he was not a tyrant, but he was a politician w poor judge of character and was frequently sick, later he went insane in life, he sought to personally intervene in gov affairs, something eng kings have not done since generations, and chose ministers that were incompetnetn or failed to please him, all british minister came from british elite, and wealthy and arrogant, more concerned w local affairs and winning personal advantage in london politias than in larger questions of policy, to a man they were ignorant of american conditions, none of them were there and none of them wanted to go to a place full of barbarians (the whites), and best they viewed colonists as inferior, on top of this there was no effect means of communication between colonists and , non way for british ministers to understand the colonial subject- if they even wanted to, many of them resented america since colonies were becoming rich and powerful,

american ideology

American ideology during the period leading up to the American Revolution was shaped by a combination of historical experiences, Enlightenment ideas, and a desire for greater autonomy. It was closely related to concepts of representation, virtual representation, republicanism, and John Locke's liberalism. Here's how these elements are connected:

1. Americans and Their Legislatures:

American colonists had established legislatures in many colonies that operated with a degree of self-governance. These assemblies played a role in shaping colonial identity and political consciousness.

2. Virtual Representation:

Virtual representation was a British political concept that argued that members of Parliament represented not only the individuals who elected them but also all British subjects, including those in the American colonies, regardless of whether they had elected representatives in Parliament.

3. American Views of Virtual Representation:

American colonists largely rejected the idea of virtual representation. They argued that only direct representation, where they could elect their own representatives to a legislative body, could adequately protect their rights and interests.

4. "No Taxation without Representation":

The famous slogan "No taxation without representation" encapsulated the American colonists' objection to being taxed by the British government without having a voice in the British Parliament. They believed that only elected representatives could legitimately impose taxes on them.

5. Republicanism:

Republicanism, as an ideology, emphasized the importance of a government based on the consent of the governed and the protection of individual rights and liberties. Many American colonists embraced republican principles, seeing them as a bulwark against tyranny.

6. Power, Corruption, and Virtue:

American republicanism emphasized the need for virtuous leaders and citizens. It was rooted in the belief that power could corrupt, so it was crucial to have virtuous leaders and an engaged citizenry to prevent tyranny and protect individual freedoms.

7. John Locke and His Liberalism:

John Locke, an Enlightenment philosopher, was influential in shaping American political thought. His ideas on natural rights, limited government, and the social contract laid the intellectual groundwork for the American Revolution.

8. Two Basic Policies Offended Colonists:

Two of John Locke's ideas that offended American colonists were:

a. Limited Government: Locke's belief in limited government, which meant that government authority should be restricted and that citizens had the right to revolt against a government that violated their rights, resonated with American colonists who believed in resisting British overreach.

b. Social Contract: Locke's concept of a social contract, in which government's legitimacy depended on the consent of the governed, provided the philosophical basis for the American colonists' belief that British rule was illegitimate because they had no voice in British decision-making.

These various elements of American ideology, including the rejection of virtual representation, the emphasis on republican principles, and the influence of John Locke's liberalism, played a crucial role in the development of the American Revolution. They informed the colonists' grievances against British policies and led to their quest for independence and self-governance.

in which americans viewed british actions, colonies from begining had been self governing, they all had own legislature, which had run their colonies since their founding, and americans did not believe that parliament was supreme to these legislatures, they didnt believe that britain had right to insist on parliamentary supremacy, esp since there was no american represntattives in parliament, the british dismissed this question of rep, they believe in the virtual representation

this meant that although members of parliament not elected, they were nevertheless virtually represented by that body, the members of parliament represented member sof everyone in british empire whether they cast a vote or not, ofc american riduculed and called it absurd saying that the only legitatemate reps were chosen by the ppl for whom they spoke, there couldnt be virtial representation, thusmm embers of parliament were not reps of america thus parliament had no right ot tax or pass any laws, “no taxation without representation”, that was american argument,

american ideology

republicanism- popular across atlantic world amongst liberal thinkers, the best form of gov was a republic, which the ppl elected their reps, rejects monarchy and hereditary arostocriacy, there was more to repbulicanism, had an conspiricay aspect, believed ppl in power are always trying to enlarge their power-they want more power- and they do this by taking from others, 2 means,

1. standing army/proffessional army, used to subjugate the ppl

2. corruption, men in power tried to get you to abandon ur liberty w enticement of partonage, w gov jobs and contract, trying to buy loyalty, repubs always on lookout for curroption

how do u resist corruption? did so with virtue, sacrifice of self intrest for the public good, had to serve virtuously to resist enticement of corruption to maintain liberty

liberalism- came from writings of john locke, his argument that he had life, liberty, and property, and if gov taken this from you, you had right to rebel and form new gov,americans would soon interpret all actions through this ideology

this led london to destroy american liberty. the crisis was set off by 2 british policies

1. western terroteries, drained brit treasury

2. british decision to tax the colonies, means of finding new revenue to find empire

3. Well, in 1763 a native rebellion which we call Pontiacs rebellion. Would lead Britain. To completely re. Her policies in the West. To adopt new measures. We're not popular. To british colonist The end of the war. French and Indian War. The elimination of the French upset. All of the relationships that had existed. Between natives and Europeans before the war. Now there was only one European power. One of the two causes of this rebellion would be this new, changing relationship between the British and the natives. The French had seated territory to Britain. But the natives claim was their own. Just as importantly, they were now more dependent on Britain than ever before. Top of that, you elimination of the French and ohio. So English traders and settlers. who are into the region confusio over land claims , fur trade, and tribal relation, the natives saw british expansion as a dire threat The second clause where the religious teachings of a native prophet named neolin, delaware indian, neolin argued that the natives must reject european technology, free themselves from commercial ties w the whites and dependence on alcohol. Cloth themselves of guard of their ancestors and drive the british from their territory.  

pontiac rebellion

Pontiac's Rebellion was a significant indigenous uprising against British colonial rule in North America that took place from 1763 to 1766. It had several key causes and events:

1. Two Causes:

- Changing Relationship with the British: One of the primary causes of Pontiac's Rebellion was the changing relationship between Native American tribes and the British after the French and Indian War. The British, who had defeated the French and taken control of former French territories, sought to assert their dominance and establish new policies, leading to tensions and grievances among the indigenous peoples.

- Teachings of Neolin: Neolin, a Delaware Prophet, played a role in influencing Native American resistance. He preached a message of indigenous unity and the rejection of European culture and technology. His teachings resonated with many tribes who were dissatisfied with British policies and cultural encroachment.

2. The Rebellion:

- The Rebellion: The rebellion began in 1763 when a coalition of Native American tribes, led by Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, initiated a series of coordinated attacks against British forts and settlements in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes region. The goal was to drive the British out of the region.

- Initial Successes: The rebels achieved some initial successes, including the capture or destruction of several British forts. However, the rebellion faced challenges, as the British rallied and launched counteroffensives.

3. The Paxton Boys:

- The Paxton Boys were a group of vigilantes from Pennsylvania who carried out a brutal massacre of Susquehannock Indians in 1763. Although the Paxton Boys' actions were separate from Pontiac's Rebellion, they reflected the broader tensions and violence between settlers and Native Americans in the aftermath of the war.

4. End of the Rebellion:

- British Response: The British responded to Pontiac's Rebellion with a combination of military force, diplomacy, and changes in policy. They made efforts to negotiate peace and recognized that it was difficult to maintain control over the western territories.

- Proclamation of 1763: In 1763, the British issued the Proclamation of 1763, which aimed to ease tensions by restricting westward expansion by British colonists and settlers. This was meant to create a boundary line beyond which settlers were not supposed to go, in order to avoid further conflict with Native Americans.

- Peace Treaties: The rebellion gradually lost momentum, and various peace treaties were negotiated with some tribes. By 1766, Pontiac's influence waned, and the rebellion came to an end.

Pontiac's Rebellion had significant implications for the relationship between indigenous peoples and the British Crown. It highlighted the challenges the British faced in maintaining control over their newly acquired territories and led to policy changes, such as the Proclamation of 1763. The rebellion also underscored the importance of indigenous resistance in shaping the history of North America during the 18th century.

1. Neolin combines. This argument with a new one. Panned indian identity, all indians in preach were a single people. And only through cooperation could they regain their lost territory and independence. , Experiences of dispossession. Intertribal communities that existed in Ohio. The mixing of Indian warriors and French armies. All helped to inspire this sense of identity as Indians rather than as members of separate tribes. Neil's teachings about a receptive audience throughout Ohio. Led to what we call Pontiacs rebellion, named after one of the cheats. Participated. In 1763, Ottawa's Hurons and other natives launch surprise attacks. Against British forces all around the Ohio region. So you can see on the map those. Sort of reddish fire things. They seized nine forks. And the siege Detroit, the major British outpost. And kill hundreds of British soldiers and white settlers. They also launched raids against colonial settlements in Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia. Destroying hundreds of homesteads and killing several thousand people. The ferocity. Pause and shock the British. And then enraged many colonists. Drink. of the natives by we either kill or removed , the paxton boys took matters into their own hand couldn’t attack Western natives. They instead struck at the peaceful Conestoga natives. Paxton Boys. Made-up of 50 settlers. Butturched them? Setting their cabins ablaze. Refuge in the city jail but paxton boys broke into jail and slaughtered them, then marched in philedelphia, providing shelter to natives, but blocked by british troops and backed down only when promised immunity, the british soon counterattacked relieved seige of detroit but brit gov did not want to wage war, it was expensive, and natives were also open to peace, they were running out of gunpower and guns, They were fighting their supplier of arms. That's not a good situation. Eventually the British would sign separate treaties with each tribe. We can summarize basically what they agreed to. The natives allowed the British to reoccupy the forts that they had captured. In return, the British were. Renewed Generous trading and gift giving practice by the French. This became official british policy bc gift giving and respect for indians was cheaper than war British made peace. But the natives. Still deny. The legitimacy. Of the British claim to their territory. Rebellion caused Britain to rethink its Western policies. Which before had essentially been to open the West to settlement traders. The british sign 6000 troops to protect the entire frontier? it's much to protect the indians from settlers the 

proclamation of line

Britain's new western policy, as exemplified by the Proclamation Line of 1763, had significant implications for colonial expansion in North America. Here's how it relates to the policy's temporary nature, its later permanence, and the American reaction:

1. Proclamation Line of 1763:

The Proclamation of 1763 was a British policy that established a boundary known as the Proclamation Line along the Appalachian Mountains. It prohibited British colonists from settling west of this line, in territory acquired from France following the French and Indian War. The policy aimed to ease tensions between Native American tribes and the British and prevent further conflicts.

2. Temporary Policy:

Initially, the Proclamation Line was intended as a temporary policy to address immediate post-war challenges. It sought to stabilize relations between Native American tribes and British settlers, as well as provide a measure of control over westward expansion.

3. Made Permanent:

Over time, the Proclamation Line, which was meant to be temporary, was incorporated into a broader British imperial policy of restricting colonial westward expansion.

4. Reasons for Permanence:

Several factors contributed to the decision to make the Proclamation Line permanent:

a. Native American Relations: The British government recognized the importance of maintaining peaceful relations with indigenous tribes, many of which were aggrieved by colonial encroachment on their lands.

b. Cost of Defense: The British Crown was concerned about the cost of defending settlers in western territories and believed that restricting westward expansion could reduce the need for costly military operations.

c. Regulation of Colonial Expansion: The British government sought more control over the growth and development of its North American colonies, and limiting westward expansion was seen as a means of centralizing authority.

5. American Reaction:

The American reaction to the Proclamation Line of 1763 was largely negative, and it contributed to growing tensions between the American colonies and the British government:

- Colonists Resented Restrictions: American colonists resented the restriction on their ability to settle and speculate on western lands, which they viewed as an infringement on their rights and opportunities.

- Land Speculation: Many colonists had invested in land speculation in the Ohio Valley and beyond, and the Proclamation Line limited their potential profits.

- Belief in Expansion: Colonists had a strong belief in westward expansion as a means of securing economic opportunities, and the line was seen as an impediment to their aspirations.

The Proclamation Line of 1763 was one of the early policies that contributed to colonial discontent and played a role in the lead-up to the American Revolution. It represented one of the first major points of contention between the American colonies and the British government over issues of colonial governance and territorial rights.

1. Proclamation line of 1763, w this they drew line down appalachian mountains. Settlers were barred from crossing the line from crossing the Appalachian Mountains. This means no Western settlement. Only licensed traders. couldt do business with the natives. West of the line. the purchase of native land was forbidden, west of the line was now indian country, white settlers and traders w/o license are banned. It was initially supposed to be a temporary policy. Back in London they came to really like it so they made it permanent. It hcecked westward expansion, saving money, preventing trouble w the indians, and kept colonies tied closely to mother country, brit policiy makers thought it was all good. American colonists did not see it that way, they fought french indian war to get ohio they thought they won and wanted ohio, now london says that they cant have that land this angers planter elite and poor settlers who wanted start from land in the west and americans would want new law, continue to buy western land, settler establish homesteads, but they would burn it, large frotnier so odd were low of british discovery until war of independence, alright stop