AP European History Unit 4: Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments

Scientific Revolution

A period of major advances in scientific thought during the 16th and 17th centuries that transformed the way people understood the natural world, characterized by developments in fields such as astronomy, physics, biology, and chemistry.

Nicholas Copernicus

A Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who proposed that the sun is at the center of the universe (heliocentrism), challenging the geocentric model; published On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres

On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres

A seminal work by Nicholas Copernicus that presented the heliocentric model of the universe, arguing that the Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun.

Giordano Bruno

Italian monk who was burned at the stake in 1600 for teaching Copernicus’ heliocentric ideas

Tycho Brahe

Danish astronomer who spotted a new comet and a new star in the sky in the 1500’s, exemplifying that the universe was not perfectly created

Johannes Kepler

German astronomer known for formulating the laws of planetary motion, which describe the orbits of planets around the Sun as elliptical rather than perfectly circular.

Galileo Galilei

Italian astronomer and physicist who made significant improvements to the telescope, leading to discoveries such as the moons of Jupiter and support for the heliocentric model.

William Harvey

English physician who discovered the circulation of blood in the body, demonstrating how the heart pumps blood through a network of arteries and veins; corrected Galen’s notions on the circulatory system

Francis Bacon

English politician who chided everyone using the old paradigms and models of the universe; created observations and experiments, seeking to use reason; argued for the scientific method and asking original questions; wrote The Advancement of Learning; introduced Empiricism and Inductive Reasoning

The Advancement of Learning

A philosophical work by Francis Bacon advocating for empirical research and the systematic pursuit of knowledge through experimentation and observation.

inductive reasoning

A method of reasoning that involves developing general principles based on specific observations and experiments.

Rene Descartes

French philosopher and mathematician known for his statement "I think, therefore I am." He emphasized the use of reason and skepticism in the pursuit of knowledge; introduced deductive reasoning

Isaac Newton

An English mathematician and physicist who developed the laws of motion and universal gravitation. His work in calculus and optics also laid foundational principles for modern science; encapsulated his findings in his Principa Mathematica

Principa Mathematica

a work from 1687 by Isaac Newton that outlines his laws of motion, universal gravitation, and contributions to calculus and optics, fundamentally shaping modern scientific thought.

Garcia da Orta

A Portuguese physician and botanist known for his pioneering work in the study of tropical plants and medicine in India. He authored "Conversations on the Simples, Drugs and Medicinal Substances of India," a significant text in botany and pharmacology.

Quinine

A medication used to treat malaria and other fevers, and highlighted in historical texts for its role in tropical medicine; derived from local people in Lima who cured a Jesuit priest with malaria with their quina-quina; assisted in further European expansion

Court Mathematicians

Scholars appointed by monarchs to advance mathematics and sciences, often providing counsel and developing projects that supported state interests during the Scientific Revolution.

Royal Academy of Sciences

An institution established in France by King Louis XIV in 1666 to promote scientific knowledge, encourage research, and facilitate collaboration among scientists, playing a crucial role in the advancement of science during the Enlightenment.

Aristotle

Ancient Greek philosopher who taught that the Earth was at the center of the universe, creating a geocentric model that conformed with ideas of the Church and that influenced astronomical thought for centuries.

natural philosophy

The study of nature and the physical universe that was dominant before modern science, encompassing disciplines such as physics, chemistry, and biology.

Ptolemy

Ancient Greek astronomer known for his geocentric model of the universe, which posited that the Earth was at the center, influencing astronomical thought and the Church's views for many centuries.

Galen

Ancient Greek physician whose medical theories, rooted in the works of Aristotle, dominated European medicine for centuries; enforced Humoral Theory

Humoral Theory

A medical concept that posits health is maintained by a balance of four bodily fluids or humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile.

Paracelsus

A Swiss physician and alchemist who challenged traditional (Humoral Theory) medical practices and emphasized the use of chemicals in medicine, contributing to the development of modern pharmacology.

Andreas Vesalius

A Flemish physician known for his pioneering work in anatomy through detailed dissections and illustrations, which corrected many misconceptions from Galen's teachings.

Empiricism

A philosophical approach that emphasizes knowledge through sensory experience and experimentation (inductive reasoning), particularly in the scientific method; introduced by Francis Bacon

Deductive reasoning

A logical process where conclusions are drawn from general principles or premises to specific cases, often associated with the works of René Descartes.

the Enlightenment

an intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason, science, and individualism over tradition; using reason to determine if traditional beliefs were still valuable. It influenced social, political, and economic thought in Europe and beyond.

Montesquieu

A French philosopher and political theorist known for his work "The Persian Letters” in which Uzbeck visitors find Europe amusing; emphasized the flaws in European and other societies alike

Voltaire

A prominent Enlightenment writer and philosopher known for his advocacy of civil liberties, separation of church and state, and criticism of religious dogma, particularly in works such as "Candide" and "Treatise on Tolerance."; advocated for absolutism

Candide

A satirical novella written by Voltaire that critiques optimism and explores the absurdities of life through the misadventures of its main character, Candide.

Jean-Jaques Rousseau

A French philosopher known for his work "The Social Contract," which outlined his ideas on political philosophy, popular sovereignty, and the concept of the general will.

Emile

A work by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that discusses education and the development of the individual in society, emphasizing the importance of experience and natural growth; middle class values of practicality, domesticity for women, etc.

salons

Social gatherings in which intellectuals and artists discussed ideas during the Enlightenment, fostering discussions on philosophy, literature, and politics.

philosophe

A term that refers to the intellectuals of the Enlightenment in France who sought to promote social progress and reform through reason and critical thinking.

Encyclopedie

A collective French work edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert, aimed at gathering and disseminating knowledge across various fields, promoting Enlightenment ideals of reason and critiquing established doctrines; included natural rights and the status of women + technical designs

David Hume

A Scottish philosopher known for his empiricism and skepticism; argued that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience and is significant for his contributions to philosophy, particularly concerning human understanding and morality; argued that belief in God was mere superstition

Deists

Individuals who emerged in the Enlightenment who argued that God existed but that he didn’t influence everyday life

Jean Calas

A French Protestant whose wrongful execution in 1762 for allegedly murdering his son led to public outrage and a campaign for religious tolerance, significantly influencing Enlightenment thought and legal reform; Voltaire, specifically, was outraged

Guillaume Raynal

A French historian and philosopher who played a key role in promoting Enlightenment ideas about history and society, particularly through his work on colonialism and criticism of European imperialism.

Olaudah Equiano

A prominent African abolitionist and writer whose autobiography detailed his experiences as a slave and his journey to freedom, contributing significantly to the anti-slavery movement in the Enlightenment.

The Social Contract

Rousseau picked up on Locke’s theme of the contract individuals made with one another to form a state or nation; argued in this text that the power is vested in the people; in order to protect their natural rights, they give some of that power over to the state; if the government becomes tyrannical, than the people have the right to revolt

Emmanuel Kant

A German philosopher who focused in individual reason; everyone should think for themselves

Moses Mendelssohn

A Jewish philosopher of the Enlightenment who advocated for religious toleration and the integration of Jews into European society, known for his work on rationalism and ethics; believed that the age-old persecution of the Jewish people would soon end

rationalism

everything in human life could and should be submitted to the process of reason; pioneered by Kepler, Newton, Galileo and others

Mary Wollstonecraft

An English writer and advocate for women's rights, best known for her work "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" which argues for equality and education for women.

A Vindication of the Rights of Women

A seminal work by Mary Wollstonecraft that argues for the rights of women, emphasizing the importance of education and equality in society.

The Spirit of the Laws

A foundational work in political theory by Montesquieu; argued that separating power into multiple branches of government is that each branch can check the other was the only way to avoid tyranny and encourage equality

Denis Diderot

A French philosopher and a key figure of the Enlightenment who co-founded the Encyclopédie, promoting knowledge and reason as means to improve society.

Adam Smith

A Scottish economist and philosopher known as the father of modern economics; he authored "The Wealth of Nations," which discusses the principles of free market capitalism and the benefits of self-interest in economic activity; criticized mercantilism; advocated supply and demand

Physiocrats

French economic thinkers

Robert Jacques Turgot

A French economist and key figure of the Physiocratic school, known for advocating for free trade and the idea of the natural order of economics.

skepticism

A philosophical approach that questions the validity of certain knowledge claims, emphasizing doubt and inquiry as a path to understanding.

Pietism

belief that emphasizes personal faith, focusing on individual relationships with God and the importance of spiritual, mystical experience.

John Wesley

An English cleric and founder of the Methodist movement, he emphasized personal faith and the need for social reform, advocating for experiential religion.

Methodist

A denomination of Christianity that originated with the teachings of John Wesley, emphasizing personal faith and social justice.

bubonic plague

dissapears in Europe (for the most part) in the 18th century, leading to lower death rates

Columbian Exchange

brought more food into Europe; in the 18th century, this food could be transported and stored with new technology; this decreases death rates

birth control

increasingly used during the 18th century. slowing birth rates

illegitimate child

a child born to parents who are not married to each other, often increasing in number during the 18th century due to changing social norms.

clover

a crop introduced during the Columbian Exchange that improved soil fertility and supported livestock, contributing to agricultural advancements in 18th century Europe.

Enclosure Acts

laws that consolidated land and increased agricultural efficiency in England, leading to changes in rural life and farming practices during the 18th century.

Nuclear Family

the familial norm that had bee growing since the Middle Ages; moving out of parents’ house required a large sum of money, and therefore people delayed getting married until their mid-late twenties during the 18th century

urbanization

the process by which rural populations migrated to cities, leading to increased population density and changes in social structures during the 18th century.

tenement

a type of building that housed multiple families, often characterized by overcrowding and poor living conditions, common in urban areas during the 18th century.

tuberculosis

a contagious bacterial infection that primarily affects the lungs, causing symptoms such as cough, fever, and weight loss; it became prevalent in crowded urban areas during the 18th century (such as tenements)

Vagrancy Act

a law enacted in England in 1822 century aimed at regulating and penalizing the homeless and unemployed population, promoting social order and labor conformity.

Consumer Revolution

the period during the 18th century marked by an increase in the consumption of not-necessary goods and a shift towards a consumer-driven economy; middle and upper classes had more disposable income than ever before; resulted in identity based on material possessions and lifestyles.

privacy

became increasingly important with the advent of the Consumer Revolution, as people sought to maintain personal spaces in their homes and distinguish themselves through their consumption patterns.

Boudoir

a private sitting room or bedroom for women, typically used for dressing and relaxation, reflecting personal taste and style in the context of the Consumer Revolution.

leisure activities

became more prevalent during the Consumer Revolution; included sitting at salons/coffeehouses, spectator sports (blood sports), reading

spectator sports

public events where audiences watch athletic competitions, often featuring activities like boxing and horse racing, that emerged as popular forms of entertainment during the 18th century, often consisting of blood sports

Reading Revolution

As literacy continued to spread during the 18th century thanks to new efforts to educate children and the abundance of printed materials made available by the printing press, more and more people began to read

censorship

increased with the Reading Revolution, often by the Church

bourgeois

a social class characterized by their ownership of capital and their role in the economy, often associated with the rise of a middle class during the 18th century; in the 18th century, artwork started to shift to appeal to this group

Rembrandt

a Dutch painter known for his portraits and use of light and shadow, who significantly influenced the development of Baroque art in the 17th century; depicted down-to-earth religious scenes AND everyday scenes

neoclassicism

an artistic movement inspired by the classical art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome, emphasizing simplicity, symmetry, and a focus on idealized forms; emerged during the 18th century

Pantheon

a building by Jacques-Germain Soufflot that exemplified the neoclassical movement in its simplicity

Jacques-Germain Soufflot

a French architect known for designing the Panthéon in Paris, which reflects neoclassical ideals through its grand dome and classical elements, symmetry and simplicity.

Daniel Dafoe

an English writer and journalist best known for his novel "Robinson Crusoe," which is considered one of the first novels in the English language, reflecting themes of individualism and adventure; independence from religion

Goethe

a German writer and statesman known for his influential works in literature, notably "Faust," which explores themes of ambition, desire, and the human condition.

Faust

a dramatic work by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe that tells the story of Faust, who makes a pact with the devil in pursuit of unlimited knowledge and worldly pleasures.

Enlightened Absolutist

A ruler of the 18th century who embraced Enlightenment ideas while maintaining absolute power, using reason and reform to improve society.

Fredrick the Great

King of Prussia known for his military victories, extensive reforms, and promotion of religious tolerance and education

inherited a powerful army and therefore sought to expand his territory; seized Silesia in the War of Austrian Succession; his struggle in the Seven Years’ War led him to consider rule by more humans Enlightenment priniciples

Enforced religious toleration, legal reforms, and bureaucratic reform (Cameralism)

Silesia

a region in Central Europe under Hapsburg control that was the center of conflict during the War of Austrian Succession, seized by Frederick the Great from Austria.

War of Austrian Succession

A conflict from 1740 to 1748 involving several European powers over the succession to the Austrian throne, primarily between Austria and Prussia.

Maria Theresa

The only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and queen of Hungary and Bohemia, whose reign was marked by conflicts, reforms, and the challenge to her authority during the War of Austrian Succession.

Peter III

The Emperor of Russia who reigned for a brief period in 1762, known for his support of Frederick the Great and enthusiasm for Prussian policies, which ultimately led to his removal from the throne.

jesuits

educators whose role’s importance Fredrick the Great upheld, although he was a Lutheran

Cameralism

An economic theory in 18th century Prussia that emphasized that monarchy is the most effective form of government, and thus all aspects of state and society should be subservient to the monarch; however, the monarch had the responsibility to use their power for the good of the people

Catherine the Great

married Peter III and became Empress of Russia after plotting his murder; aimed to continue Peter’s efforts to westernize Russia (imported western architects and artists, brought in the Encyclopedie, etc), enacted legal reforms (outlawed torture in Russia, limited religious toleration), territorial expansion (partition of Poland)

Partition of Poland

The division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth among Russia, Prussia, and Austria in the late 18th century, which ultimately led to the disappearance of Poland as a sovereign state; Catherine the Great was involved in this

Pugachev Rebellion

A massive uprising in 1773-1775 led by Emelian Pugachev, which sought to overthrow Catherine the Great and address peasant grievances. The rebellion was fueled by discontent with serfdom and oppressive policies; crushed by Catherine’s army, reversing any of Catherine’s plans about reforming serfdom

Emelian Pugachev

revolted against Catherine the Great in an attempt to abolish serfdom; proclaimed himself the true tsar of Russia and abolished serfdom; his army was crushed by Catherine’s, reversing any of Catherine’s plans about reforming serfdom

Joseph II

The Holy Roman Emperor and Enlightened Absolutist who implemented extensive reforms in Austria, including religious tolerance, legal equality, and the abolition of serfdom, but faced resistance and limited success in their implementation.

Signed the Edict of Toleration, increased the freedom of the press, put strictures on the power of the Catholic Church; he made these reforms without consulting the nobility or clergy, leading to domestic turrmoil

Edict of Toleration

A decree enacted by Joseph II in 1781 that granted religious freedom to various religious groups in Austria, including Jewish people, promoting tolerance and civil rights for non-Catholics.

Jewish people

religious group for the most part excluded from gaining rights during the Enlightenment and were still subject to discrimination

Haskalah

A Jewish Enlightenment movement that aimed to promote education, integration, and modernization among Jewish communities in Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Montesqieu

argued that there were 3 types of government:

1. democracy: suitable for small states

2. monarchies: ruled mid-sized kingdoms

3. despotic states: empires that were governed with an iron hand