Ch.1 + Ch.2 TB Criminological Theories

Introduction to Criminological Theory & Deterrence and Rational Choice Theories

macro

A theory that addresses broader questions about differences across societies or major groups in society

micro

A theory that addresses smaller questions about differences across individuals or small groups within society.

internally consistent

A property of a theory indicating that its various components and propositions do not contradict each other, ensuring logical coherence in its explanations.

scope

A range of phenomena or concepts a theory covers, detailing its applicability and limitations.

parsimony

A principle that suggests theories should provide the simplest explanation possible for a phenomenon, avoiding unnecessary complexity. Conciseness and abstractness of a set of concepts and propositions.

empirical falsification

The ability to test a theory by observation or experiment, demonstrating that it can be proven wrong under certain conditions.

tautology

A logical statement that is true in every possible interpretation, providing no informative content or predictive power. Circular reasoning.

empirical validity

The extent to which a theory accurately represents and predicts real-world phenomena, supported by evidence from observations and experiments. Support by research evidence.

traditional causality

The concept that establishes a direct cause-and-effect relationship, wherein one event or factor directly influences another. It is often contrasted with more complex models of causation that consider multiple influences.

necessary condition

A condition that must be present for an event or effect to occur, but on its own does not guarantee the outcome. It is essential but not sufficient for causation.

sufficient condition

A condition that, if met, guarantees the occurrence of a certain event or outcome, but is not required for that outcome to happen.

probabilistic causality

A framework for understanding causation in which the presence of one condition increases the likelihood of an event occurring, recognizing that outcomes are often influenced by multiple varying factors and probabilities.

soft determinism

the idea that while determinism is true, humans still have free will in some aspects of their actions.

outcome evaluation

A method to assess the effectiveness of a program or intervention by examining the results and impacts it has on intended goals or objectives.

process evalution

see if the program has indeed been implemented in the proper manner and with the proper participants as specified by the theory and goals underlying the program. The program itself may be a poor adaptation of the theory’s guiding principles

ideology

Arguments over the goals and purposes of the system—such as whether it should focus on crime control to protect society rather than due process to protect the rights of the accused or whether it should simply punish law violators as their just deserts or should attempt to rehabilitate them and are not theoretical arguments on their own.

severity of punishment

A punishment shoud only be as “bad” to overcome any gain grnered by the crime.

proportionality

legislature should enact an exact scale of crimes with an exact scale of threatened punishment, without regard to individual differences. This was later modified to consider that age and mental capacity may affect one’s ability to reason rationally.

celerity of punishment

swiftness with which criminal sanctions are applied after the commission of a crime

certainty of punishment

probability of apprehension and punishment for a crime. If the punishment for a crime is severe, certain, and swift, the citizenry will rationally calculate that more is to be lost than gained from crime and will be deterred from violating the law.

specific deterrence

apprehended and punished offenders will refrain from repeating crimes if they are certainly caught and severely punished — for the individual.

general deterrence

state’s punishment of offenders serves as an example to those in the general public who have not yet committed a crime, instilling in them enough fear of state punishment to deter them from crime

absolute deterence

he mere existence of a system that provides punishment for wrongdoing deters an unknown amount of crime. This effect of the chance of punishment versus no punishment at all

meta-analyses

combines and analyzes data from multiple separate, but similar, studies to reach a new, more precise statistical conclusion

informal deterrence

actual or anticipated social sanctions and other consequences of crime and deviance that prevent their occurrence or recurrence.

expected utility principle

(economic theory) people will make rational decisions based on the extent to which they expect the choice to maximize their profits or benefits and minimize their costs or losses. This is the same general assumption about human nature made in classical criminology.

thoughtfully reflective decision making

tendency of persons to collect information relevant to a problem or decision they must make, to think deliberately, carefully, and thoughtfully, about possible solutions to the problem, apply reason to the examination of alternative solutions, and reflect back upon both the process and the outcome of the choice in order to assess what went right and what went wrong. Process of good decision making

crime displacement

the movement of crime to a different location (ex: access control, physical barriers, employee surveillance, street lighting, and property identification)

diffusion of crime-control benefit

areas contiguous with but not directly experiencing the crime prevention strategy also see reductions in crime

geographic profiling

offenders are likely to commit crimes in places located close to their homes and along routes commonly traveled in the course of their noncriminal routines. This investigative tool uses a statistical algorithm that identifies the serial offender’s “hunting area” based on the locations of the crime events, divides the hunting area into tiny units of space, and then calculates probabilities that any given unit of space serves as the offender’s “home base.”