Final Exam

Salivary Glands

Produce saliva to aid in digestion.

Pancreas

Produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate.

Liver

Produces bile for fat emulsification.

Gallbladder

Stores bile until needed.

Mouth

Begins digestion mechanically and chemically.

Esophagus

Transports food to the stomach.

Stomach

Mixes food and begins protein digestion.

Small Intestine

Main site for digestion and absorption.

Large Intestine

Absorbs water and forms feces.

Enamel

Hard outer layer of the tooth.

Dentin

Layer beneath enamel, makes up the bulk of the tooth.

Pulp

Contains nerves and blood vessels in the tooth.

Cementum

Covers the root of the tooth.

Voluntary Stage of Deglutition

Tongue pushes bolus to the back of the mouth.

Pharyngeal Stage of Deglutition

Bolus moves through the pharynx; epiglottis covers larynx.

Esophageal Stage of Deglutition

Peristalsis moves bolus to the stomach.

Mucous Cells

Produce mucus for lubrication in the GI tract.

Parietal Cells

Secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor.

Chief Cells

Produce pepsinogen and gastric lipase.

G Cells

Secrete gastrin in the GI tract.

Amylase

Digestive enzyme that digests carbohydrates.

Lipase

Digestive enzyme that digests fats.

Proteases

Digestive enzymes that break down proteins (e.g., trypsin).

Nucleases

Digestive enzymes that digest nucleic acids.

Gastrin

Hormone that stimulates gastric acid secretion.

Secretin

Hormone that stimulates bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas.

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Hormone that stimulates bile release and pancreatic enzyme secretion.

GERD

Gastroesophageal reflux disease.

Ulcers

Erosions in the stomach lining.

IBD

Inflammatory bowel disease.

Celiac Disease

Gluten intolerance.

Mucosa

Innermost layer of the GI tract for absorption and secretion.

Submucosa

Connective tissue with blood vessels and nerves in the GI tract.

Muscularis

Smooth muscle responsible for peristalsis in the GI tract.

Serosa

Outermost layer (visceral peritoneum) of the GI tract.

Kidneys

Filter blood and produce urine.

Ureters

Transport urine from kidneys to the bladder.

Urinary Bladder

Stores urine.

Urethra

Transmits urine from the bladder to the exterior.

Cortex of Kidney

Outer portion of the kidney, contains nephrons.

Medulla of Kidney

Inner region of the kidney containing renal pyramids.

Renal Pelvis

Collects urine before entering the ureters.

Glomerulus

Network of capillaries for filtration in the nephron.

Bowman's Capsule

Surrounds glomerulus, collects filtrate.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

Reabsorbs nutrients and water in the nephron.

Loop of Henle

Concentrates urine in the nephron.

Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)

Further adjusts urine composition in the nephron.

Pathway of Blood Flow through the Kidney

Renal artery → Afferent arterioles → Glomerulus → Efferent arterioles → Peritubular capillaries → Renal vein.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Increases water reabsorption in kidneys.

Aldosterone

Increases sodium reabsorption.

Natriuretic Peptide

Decreases sodium and water reabsorption.

Normal Urine Characteristics

Light yellow in color, clear, specific gravity of 1.005 to 1.030.

Cloudy or Dark Urine

Possible infection or dehydration.

Presence of Blood in Urine

Indicates possible kidney stones or infection.

High Glucose in Urine

Suggests diabetes.

Urinalysis

Tests for glucose, proteins, ketones, blood, and specific gravity.

Aging in the GI Tract

Decreased motility and secretion, increased risk for digestive disorders.

Aging in the Urinary System

Decreased kidney function and blood flow, increased risk of urinary incontinence and infections.