Psychology Concepts and Research Methods Vocabulary

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards covering foundational psychological perspectives, research designs, experimental controls, cognitive biases, and statistical concepts based directly on the lecture transcript.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes; its goal is to describe, understand, explain, and predict behavior.

Empirical evidence

Information gathered through direct observation and measurement; the engine that drives the scientific attitude.

Scientific attitude

The combination of curiosity, skepticism, and humility that guides scientific inquiry.

Critical thinking

Examining assumptions, evaluating evidence, and testing conclusions rather than accepting claims at face value.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between two variables.

Theory

An organized explanation of observations that generates testable hypotheses.

Operational definition

The exact, repeatable procedure used to define and measure a variable in a study.

Replication

Repeating a study with different participants to see whether the original finding holds.

Peer review

Evaluation of a study's methods and results by other experts before publication.

Behavioral perspective

The approach that emphasizes observable behavior learned through conditioning and reinforcement.

Psychoanalytic perspective

The approach that emphasizes the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences in shaping behavior.

Cognitive perspective

The approach that focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem solving.

Humanistic perspective

The approach that emphasizes free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.

Biological perspective

The approach that explains behavior through the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, and genetics.

Evolutionary perspective

The approach that explains behavior through natural selection and survival advantage.

Sociocultural perspective

The approach that explains behavior through culture, social norms, and group membership.

Biopsychosocial approach

An integrated model combining biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences.

Experiment

A research method in which the researcher manipulates a variable in a controlled setting; the only method that establishes cause and effect.

Correlational study

A research method that measures how two variables relate without manipulating them; it shows relationship and allows prediction but never proves causation.

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in its natural environment without manipulation or intervention.

Case study

An in-depth analysis of a single individual or a small group.

Survey research

Gathering information from a large group using structured interviews, questionnaires, and self-reports.

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure that combines the results of many existing studies to draw a broader conclusion.

Longitudinal study

Research that follows the same group of participants over an extended period of time.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you would have foreseen it.

Cross-sectional study

Research that compares different age or demographic groups at one point in time.

Qualitative research

Research producing non-numeric data through focus groups, unstructured interviews, observations, and open-ended responses.

Quantitative research

Research producing numeric, measurable data, such as ratings on a Likert scale.

Likert scale

A rating scale that turns opinions into numbers; a quantitative tool, not a qualitative one.

Independent variable

The variable the researcher manipulates; the suspected cause.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured; the outcome that depends on the independent variable.

Confounding variable

An outside factor that varies with the independent variable and could explain the results instead.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment.

Control group

The group that does not receive the treatment; it provides a baseline for comparison.

Random assignment

Assigning participants so each has an equal chance of being in any group, which evens out participant differences and controls confounding variables.

Random sampling

Selecting participants so every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen, which makes results generalizable.

Population

The entire group a researcher wants to draw conclusions about.

Sample

The subset of the population actually studied.

Representative sample

A sample that accurately mirrors the characteristics of the population.

Placebo

An inert substance or fake treatment given to the control group.

Placebo effect

Results produced by participants' expectations rather than by the actual treatment.

Single-blind study

A study in which participants do not know which condition they are in.

Double-blind study

A study in which both the participants and the researchers are unaware of who received the treatment.

Experimenter bias

Researcher expectations influencing how data is collected or interpreted.

Informed consent

Participants' agreement to take part after being told what the study involves.

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose of a study to participants after it ends.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

The committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical treatment of participants.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to seek and favor evidence that supports what you already believe.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more certain of your judgments than accuracy justifies.

Self-serving bias

Taking credit for successes while blaming outside forces for failures.

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship between two things when none actually exists.

Third variable problem

When two variables correlate only because an unmeasured third factor influences both.

Perceiving order in random events

The tendency to see patterns, streaks, or meaning in genuine randomness.

Mean

The arithmetic average; the sum of all values divided by the number of values, easily pulled by outliers.

Median

The middle value when data is ordered from smallest to largest; the best measure of center when data is skewed.

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values; a measure of variation.

Standard deviation

A measure of how much scores typically differ from the mean.

Normal curve

A symmetrical bell-shaped distribution in which the mean, median, and mode are equal and fall at the center peak.

Skewed distribution

A distribution pulled to one side by extreme scores, so the mean no longer matches the median.

Scatterplot

A graph of paired scores whose pattern of dots shows the direction and strength of a correlation.

Positive correlation

A relationship in which both variables move in the same direction; dots rise from left to right.

Negative correlation

A relationship in which one variable increases as the other decreases; dots fall from left to right.

Correlation coefficient ($r$)

A number from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ where the sign shows direction and the absolute value shows strength.

Statistical significance

An indication that a result is unlikely to have occurred by chance.