AP Biology Review Flashcards

AP Biology review flashcards for exam preparation.

What is a hydrogen bond?

Involves Hydrogen and another element, Dashed/Dotted line, WEAK

Where are hydrogen bonds found in DNA?

Between the two strands of DNA to hold them together in a double helix.

What are three properties of water?

High cohesion, High adhesion, High specific heat, Universal solvent

What are the four macromolecules?

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids

What are the elements found in a carbohydrate?

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

What are the elements found in a protein?

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and sometimes Sulfur

What are parts found in all nucleotides?

A five-carbon sugar (pentose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Which macromolecule(s) contain nitrogen?

Proteins and Nucleic acids

Which macromolecule(s) contain phosphorus?

Nucleic Acids and Lipids (phospholipids)

What is dehydration synthesis?

The removal of water to create a bond between monomers to form a polymer.

What is hydrolysis?

The addition of water to break a bond in a polymer and release monomers.

What type of bond is found in carbohydrates?

Glycosidic linkage

What type of bond is found between protein monomers?

Peptide bond

What type of bond is found between nucleic acid monomers?

Phosphodiester bond

What is the monomer of a carbohydrate?

Monosaccharide

What is the monomer of a protein?

Amino acid

What type of bond is found in starch?

Alpha glycosidic linkage

What type of bond is found in cellulose?

Beta glycosidic linkage

What are the ends called in a nucleic acid polymer and what is found at each end?

5' end has a phosphate group, and 3' end has a hydroxyl group.

What are the complementary base pairings found in nucleic acids?

Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) in DNA, Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U) in RNA, Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)

What are the ends of a protein called and what is found at each end?

N-terminus (amino end) and C-terminus (carboxyl end)

What are the three components of a DNA or RNA molecule?

A five-carbon sugar (pentose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

What is the monomer that makes up an enzyme?

Amino Acid

What is the function of an enzyme?

Catalyze biological reactions

How does an enzyme affect the rate of biological reactions?

Enzymes lower the activation energy required for a reaction to occur, thereby speeding up the reaction.

Identify two conditions that affect the structure of an enzyme.

Temperature and pH

What is denaturation?

A process in which a protein loses its native shape due to disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming biologically inactive.

What happens to the pH when the concentration of hydrogen ions increases?

pH decreases (becomes more acidic).

What is a competitive inhibitor?

A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate, whose structure it mimics.

What is a noncompetitive inhibitor?

A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing the enzyme's shape so that the active site no longer effectively catalyzes the conversion of substrate to product.

What is the first law of thermodynamics?

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed.

What is the second law of thermodynamics?

Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe.

What is energy coupling?

The use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one.

What organism first evolved photosynthesis?

Cyanobacteria

What are the light-dependent reactions?

Reactions of photosynthesis that use light energy to make ATP and NADPH.

What is chlorophyll?

A green pigment located in membranes within the chloroplasts of plants and algae and in the membranes of certain prokaryotes. Chlorophyll participates directly in the light reactions, which convert solar energy to chemical energy.

What is fermentation?

A catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose (or other organic molecules) without an electron transport chain and that produces a characteristic end product, such as ethyl alcohol or lactic acid.

What is the electron transport chain?

A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons down a series of redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.

What is chemiosmosis?

An energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work, such as the synthesis of ATP. Most ATP synthesis in cells occurs by chemiosmosis.

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; the third major stage of cellular respiration.

What is photophosphorylation?

The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of chemiosmosis, using a proton-motive force generated during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

What is glycolysis?

A series of reactions that ultimately splits glucose into pyruvate. Glycolysis occurs in almost all living cells, serving as the starting point for fermentation or cellular respiration.

What are the three phases of the cell cycle?

Interphase, Mitotic (M) Phase, Cytokinesis

What are the phases of interphase?

G1 Phase, S Phase, G2 Phase

What are the phases of mitosis?

Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

What is a phylogenetic tree?

A branching diagram that represents a hypothesis about the evolutionary history of a group of organisms.

What is nondisjunction?

An error in meiosis or mitosis in which members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate properly from one another.

What is the RNA World Hypothesis?

The hypothesis that RNA, not DNA, was the original genetic material.

What is the function of hydrogen bonds in the structure of DNA?

Hydrogen bonds hold the two strands of DNA together in a double helix.

Which macromolecule is involved in the genetic information storage and transmission?

Nucleic Acids.

What is the role of enzymes in biological reactions?

Enzymes catalyze biological reactions by lowering the activation energy required.

Explain the process of hydrolysis in biological molecules.

Hydrolysis is the addition of water to break a bond in a polymer, resulting in the release of monomers.

Identify two factors that can affect enzyme activity and their effects.

Temperature and pH; changes can denature the enzyme and reduce its activity.

What is the significance of the complementary base pairing in DNA?

It ensures accurate replication and transmission of genetic information.

Describe the structure and function of chlorophyll in photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll is a green pigment that captures light energy for photosynthesis, located in chloroplast membranes.

Differentiate between competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors in enzymatic reactions.

Competitive inhibitors compete with the substrate for the active site, while noncompetitive inhibitors bind elsewhere, altering the enzyme's shape.

How does glycolysis contribute to cellular respiration?

Glycolysis splits glucose into pyruvate, providing substrates for further energy extraction in cellular respiration.

What are the stages of mitosis, and what key events occur in each?

The stages are Prophase (chromatin condenses into chromosomes), Prometaphase (nuclear envelope breaks down), Metaphase (chromosomes align), Anaphase (sister chromatids separate), Telophase (nuclei re-form).

What are the three phases of the cell cycle?

Interphase, Mitotic (M) Phase, and Cytokinesis.

Discuss the implications of nondisjunction in human genetics.

Nondisjunction can lead to aneuploidy, resulting in conditions such as Down syndrome.