AP HUG everything review

Absolute location

The position or place of a certain item on the surface of the Earth as expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds of latitude and longitude.

Acculturation

Cultural modification resulting from intercultural borrowing.

Agglomeration effects

Cost advantages that accrue to individual firms because of their location among functionally related activities.

Agrarian

Referring to the culture of agricultural communities and the type of tenure system that determines access to land and the kind of cultivation practices employed there.

Agribusiness

Commercial agriculture characterized by integration of different steps in the food-processing industry; usually through ownership by large corporations.

Agricultural density

The ratio of the number of farmers to the total amount of land suitable for agriculture.

Agricultural revolution

The time when human beings first domesticated plants and animals and no longer relied entirely on hunting and gathering.

Animism

Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life.

Arable

Literally, cultivable. Land fit for cultivation by one farming method or another.

Balkanization

Process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among its ethnicities.

Basic functions (basic industries)

Economic activities that provide income from sales to customers beyond city limits.

Biotechnology

Technique that uses living organisms (or parts of organisms) to make or modify products, to improve plants and animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific uses.

Break-of-bulk point

A location where transfer is possible from one mode of transportation to another.

Carrying Capacity

The maximum number of users that can be sustained, over the long term, by a given set of natural resources.

Central business district (CBD)

The area of the city where retail and office activities are clustered.

Central place theory

A theory that explains the distribution of services, based on the fact that settlements serve as centers of market areas for services; larger settlements are fewer and farther apart than smaller settlements and provide services for a larger number of people who are willing to travel farther.

Centrifugal forces

Forces that divide or tend to pull the state apart.

Chain Migration

Migration of people to a specific location because relatives or members of the same nationality previously migrated there.

Cognitive images (mental maps)

Psychological representations of locations that are made up from people's individual ideas and impressions of these locations.

Cohort

A group of individuals who share a common temporal demographic experience.

Colonial City

City that was deliberately established or developed as an administrative or commercial center by colonial or imperial powers.

Colonialism

Attempt by one country to establish settlements and to impose its political, economic, and cultural principles in another territory.

Columbian Exchange

Interaction between the Old World, originating with the voyages of Columbus, and the New World.

Commercial agriculture

Agriculture undertaken primarily to generate products for sale off the farm.

Commodification

The process through which something is given monetary value. Occurs when a good or idea that previously was not regarded as an object to be bought and sold as turned into something that has a particular price (example: the hula in Hawaii).

Commodity chain

Network of labor and production processes beginning with the extraction or production of raw materials and ending with the delivery of a finished commodity.

Concentration

The spread of something over a given area.

Concentric zone model

A model of the internal structure of cities in which social groups are spatially arranged in a series of rings.

Consolidated metropolitan statistical area (CMSA)

In the United States, two or more adjacent metropolitan statistical areas with overlapping commuting patterns.

Contagious diffusion

The rapid, widespread diffusion of a feature or trend throughout a population.

Core-periphery model

A model that describes how economic, political, and/or cultural power is spatially distributed between dominant core regions, and more marginal or dependent semi-peripheral and peripheral regions.

Crude density (arithmetic density)

Total number of people divided by the total land area.

Cultural landscape

A characteristic and tangible outcome of the complex interactions between a human group and a natural environment.

Culture

The body of customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits that together constitute a group of people's distinct tradition.

Culture region

Region within which common cultural characteristics prevail.

Demographic transition

The process of change in a society's population from a condition of high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to a condition of low crude birth and death rates, low rate of natural increase, and a higher total population.

Demography

The scientific study of population characteristics.

Dependency ratio

The number of people under the age of 15 and over age 64, compared to the number of people active in the labor force.

Desertification

Degradation of land, especially in semi-arid areas, primarily because of human actions like excessive crop planting, animal grazing, and tree cutting.

Development

A process of improvement in the material conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology.

Devolution

The process whereby regions within a state demand and gain political strength and growing autonomy at the expense of the central government.

Dialect

A regional variety of a language distinguished by vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation.

Diaspora

A term describing forceful or voluntary dispersal of a people from their homeland to a new place.

Diffusion

The process of spread of a feature or trend from one place to another over time.

Distance decay

The diminishing in importance and eventual disappearance of a phenomenon with increasing distance from its origin.

Doubling Time

The number of years needed to double a population, assuming a constant rate of natural increase.

Economies of scale

Cost advantages to manufacturers that accrue from high-volume production, since the average cost of production falls with increasing output.

Ecumene

The portion of Earth's surface occupied by permanent human settlement.

Edge city

A large node of office and retail activities on the edge of an urban area.

Electoral geography

Subfield of geography that deals with various spatial aspects of voting systems, voting behavior, and voter representation.

Emigration

Migration from a location.

Enclave

A piece of territory surrounded by, but not part of, a country.

Environmental determinism

A nineteenth- and early twentieth-century approach to the study of geography that argued that the general laws sought by human geographers could be found in the physical sciences.

Environmental justice

Movement reflecting a growing political consciousness, largely among the world's poor, that their immediate environs are far more toxic than those in wealthier neighborhoods.

Ethnicity

Identity with a group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and cultural traditions.

Exclave

A piece of national territory separated from the main body of a country by the territory of another country.

Expansion Diffusion

The spread of a feature or trend among people from one area to another in a snowballing process.

export-processing zones (EPZs)

Small areas within which especially favorable investment and trading conditions are created by governments in order to attract export-oriented industries.

Folk culture

Culture traditionally practiced by a small, homogeneous, rural group living in relative isolation from other groups.

Forced migration

Permanent movement compelled usually by cultural factors.

Fordist production

Form of mass production in which each worker is assigned one specific task to perform repeatedly.

foreign direct investment

The total of overseas business investments made by private companies.

Fragmented state

State that includes several discontinuous pieces of territory.

Fundamentalism

Interpretation and strict adherence to basic principles of a religion.

Gentrification

A process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class owner-occupied area.

Geopolitics

The state's power to control space or territory and shape the foreign policy of individual states and international political relations.

Globalization

Actions or processes that involve the entire world and result in making something worldwide in scope.

Green Revolution

Rapid diffusion of new agricultural technology, especially new high-yield seeds and fertilizers.

Gross domestic product (GDP)

The value of the total output of goods and services produced in a country in a given time period (normally one year).

Hegemony

Domination over the world economy, exercised by one national state in a particular historical epoch through a combination of economic, military, financial, and cultural means.

Hierarchical diffusion

The spread of a feature or trend from one key person or node of authority or power to other persons or places.

hinterland

The sphere of economic influence of a town or city.

Immigration

Migration to a new location.

Infant mortality rate (IMR)

The total number of deaths in a year among infants under one year old for every 1,000 live births in a society.

Informal Sector

Economic activities that take place beyond official record, not subject to formalized systems of regulation or remuneration.

infrastructure (or fixed social capital)

The underlying framework of services and amenities needed to facilitate productive activity.

Intensive subsistence agriculture

A form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasible yield from a parcel of land.

Intervening obstacle

An environmental or cultural feature of the landscape that hinders migration.

Invasion and succession

A process of neighborhood change whereby one social or ethnic group succeeds another.

Irredentism

A policy of cultural extension and potential political expansion aimed at a national group living in a neighboring country.

Isogloss

A boundary that separates regions in which different language usages predominate.

Isolines

Lines on a map depicting areas of same or like values.

Least Cost Theory

Model developed by Alfred Weber according to which the location of manufacturing establishments is determined by the minimization of three critical expenses: labor, transportation, and agglomeration.

Liberation Models

A general term for economic development models which assume that (1) all countries are capable of developing economically in the same way and (2) economic disparities between countries and regions are the result of short-term inefficiencies in local or regional market forces.

Lingua Franca

A language mutually understood and commonly used in trade by people who have different native languages.

Malthusian

Designates the early nineteenth-century viewpoint of Thomas Malthus, who argued that population growth was outrunning the Earth's capacity to produce sufficient food.

Neo-Malthusian

Refers to those who subscribe to such positions in modern contexts.

Material Culture

All physical, tangible objects made and used by members of a cultural group, such as clothing buildings, tools and utensils, instruments, furniture, and artwork; the visible aspect of culture.

Megalopolis

A large urban region formed as several urban areas spread and merge, such as Boswash, the region including Boston, New York, and Washington, D.C.

Metropolitan statistical area (MSA)

In the United States, a central city of at least 50,000 population, the county within which the city is located, and adjacent counties meeting one of several tests indicating a functional connection to the central city.

Multiplier effect

Expansion of economic activity caused by the growth or introduction of another economic activity. For example, a new basic industry will create jobs, directly or indirectly, in the nonbasic sector.

Nation

A group of people often sharing common elements of culture such as religion or language, or a history or political identity.

Nationalism

Loyalty and devotion to a particular nationality.

Nation state

A state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality.

Natural Boundary

A political border that follows some feature of the natural environment, such as a river or mountain ridge.

Neocolonialism

The entrenchment of the colonial order, such as trade and investment, under a new guise.

New international division of labor

Transfer of some types of jobs, especially those requiring low-paid less skilled workers from more developed to less developed countries.

Nonbasic industries

Industries that sell their products primarily to consumers in the community.

Nonmaterial culture

The wide range of tales, songs, lore, beliefs, superstitions, and customs that passes from generation to generation as part of an oral or written tradition.

Office park

Cluster of office buildings usually located along an interstate, often forming the nucleus of an edge city.