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Thomas Hobbes
English philosopher who believed that an absolute monarchy was the best form of government.
Leviathan
Book written by Thomas Hobbes to support his theories on government.
John Locke
English philosopher who believed in natural rights of life, liberty, and property.
Natural Rights
Life, liberty, and property; beliefs held by John Locke about the rights everyone is born with.
Philosophes
French thinkers who believed in applying reason to all aspects of life.
Salons
Upper class gatherings for discussing enlightened ideas.
Voltaire
Writer known for using satire and defending freedom of speech.
Candide
Voltaire's most celebrated satire.
Baron de Montesquieu
Philosopher known for the idea of separation of powers and checks and balances.
Denis Diderot
Philosopher who compiled the Encyclopedia.
Mary Wollstonecraft
Author of 'A Vindication of the Rights of Woman' advocating for women's education.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Philosopher who believed civilization corrupts natural goodness and wrote 'The Social Contract'.
Mercantilism
Economic policy that emphasizes government regulation of the economy.
Cash Crops
Crops grown for commercial value rather than for use by the grower.
Rigid Class Structure
A social system where movement between classes is difficult.
Colonial Rule
Control of a territory and its people by a foreign power.
Haitian Revolution
The first Latin American colony to win its independence, starting from a slave rebellion.
Toussaint L'Ouverture
Leader of the Haitian Revolution who negotiated for the end of slavery.
Miguel Hidalgo
Creole priest who initiated Mexico's independence with 'El Grito de Dolores'.
Jose Morelos
Mestizo priest who continued the fight for Mexico's independence after Hidalgo.
Agustin Iturbide
Creole who declared independence for Mexico and became its emperor.
Simon Bolivar
Military general known as the 'Liberator' who sought to unify Latin America.
Jose de San Martin
Creole officer who liberated Argentina and aided in South America's independence.
Dom Pedro
Leader of Brazil’s bloodless revolution who declared its independence.
French Revolution
Revolution from 1789 to 1815 advocating liberty, equality, and fraternity.
Estates General
Legislative assembly in pre-revolutionary France consisting of the three estates.
Third Estate
The common people of France, making up 98% of the population.
Storming of the Bastille
A pivotal event on July 14, 1789, symbolizing the start of the French Revolution.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
A foundational document of the French Revolution declaring human rights.
National Assembly
Assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate representing the people of France.
Radical Phase
Period of the French Revolution where the monarchy was abolished and a republic was formed.
Reign of Terror
Period during the French Revolution marked by extreme violence and political purging.
Napoleon Bonaparte
French military general who rose to prominence during the French Revolution.
Continental System
Napoleon's strategy to weaken Great Britain through economic blockade.
Battle of Waterloo
Final battle of Napoleon where he was defeated and exiled to St. Helena.
Congress of Vienna
1814-1815 conference to restore Europe post-Napoleon and maintain balance of power.
Nationalism
A strong devotion to one's country and a desire for self-rule.
Unification of Italy
The process leading to the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.
Giuseppe Mazzini
Italian nationalist who founded the movement 'Young Italy'.
Count Cavour
Italian prime minister who orchestrated the unification of Italy through diplomacy and war.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Military leader known for his role in the unification of Italy and his 'Red Shirts'.
Unification of Germany
The process of consolidating German states into a singular nation under Prussian leadership.
Otto von Bismarck
Chancellor of Prussia who led the German unification efforts through 'blood and iron'.
Zollverein
Customs union established among German states to promote economic unity.
Marxism
Economic and political theories of Karl Marx advocating for a classless society.
The Communist Manifesto
Pamphlet by Marx and Engels calling for the working class to unite and revolt.
Socialism
Economic theory advocating for collective ownership of the means of production.
Capitalism
Economic system characterized by private ownership and free markets.
Industrial Revolution
Period of major industrialization that transformed economies from agrarian to industrial.
Seed Drill
Agricultural invention that helped plant seeds in organized rows for efficient farming.
Power Loom
Machine that mechanized the process of weaving cloth, greatly increasing productivity.
Steam Engine
Invention that revolutionized transportation and industry by using steam power.
Enclosure Movement
Process of consolidating land into large farms, dramatically changing rural England.
Luddites
Workers who protested against industrialization by destroying machinery.
Factory Acts 1833
Laws that aimed to improve working conditions, especially for children.
Theodor Herzl
Journalist and founder of the modern Zionist movement advocating for a Jewish state.
Anti-Semitism
Prejudice and discrimination against Jews that intensified in the late 1800s.
Dreyfus Affair
Political scandal in France that involved a wrongful conviction of a Jewish officer.
Agricultural Revolution
Period of technological improvement and increased crop productivity that preceded the Industrial Revolution.
Iron and Blood
Phrase describing Bismarck’s belief in the necessity of war for German unification.
Proletariat
Working class in Marxist theory, viewed as the true productive class.
Bourgeoisie
The capitalist class in Marxist theory who own the means of production.
Communism
Final stage of socialism where an individual finds true fulfillment and the state withers away.
Scorched-Earth Policy
Military strategy of destroying anything that could be useful to the enemy.
Bloodless Revolution
A revolution that occurs without armed conflict, exemplified by Brazil's independence.
Checks and Balances
System that ensures no one branch of government becomes too powerful.
American Revolution
Conflict during which the thirteen American colonies gained independence from Britain.
French Revolution Causes
Factors such as social inequality, financial crisis, and the influence of Enlightenment ideas led to the revolution.
Salons
Informal social gatherings where intellectuals discussed ideas of the Enlightenment.
Laissez-Faire
Economic philosophy advocating for minimal government intervention in the economy.
Child Labor
The employment of children in industries and factories, often in harsh conditions.
Romanticism
Cultural movement that arose in response to the Industrial Revolution emphasizing emotion and individualism.
Victorian Era
Period during Queen Victoria's reign, marked by industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military progress.
Coup d'état
The sudden overthrow of a government, often through illegitimate means.
Restoration
The return of a monarchy to power after a period of tumult.
National Assembly
French Revolution assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate.
Guillotine
Device used for carrying out executions by beheading during the French Revolution.
Thermidorian Reaction
Period following the fall of Robespierre during which more conservative forces gained power.
Etats Généraux
The Estates-General, the French parliamentary assembly representing the three estates.
Censorship
Limiting access to ideas and information, often used by governments to control citizens.
Emigrés
French nobles who fled the country during the revolution.
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