Introduction to Neuroscience: Brain Divisions, Cells, and Neuroimaging (Video Notes)

A set of vocabulary flashcards covering neural cells, brain anatomy, portions of the nervous system, and neuroimaging methods based on the lecture notes.

Neuron

The basic signaling cell of the brain; specialized for receiving, integrating, and transmitting information via electrical and chemical signals.

Glial cells (Glia)

Non-neuronal cells that provide support, protection, and nourishment to neurons and perform many functions in neural tissue.

Motor neuron

A neuron that carries signals from the CNS to muscles to produce movement.

Sensory neuron

A neuron that receives input from sensory receptors and transmits it toward the CNS.

Interneuron

A neuron that connects neurons within the CNS to integrate information.

Dendrite

Branched projections of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.

Soma (cell body)

The central part of a neuron containing the nucleus; integrates inputs.

Axon

The long fiber that conducts electrical impulses away from the soma to other neurons or muscles.

Myelin sheath

A fatty insulating layer around axons that increases conduction speed.

Axon terminals

Presynaptic endings where neurotransmitters are released to signal other cells.

Dendritic spine

Small protrusion on a dendrite where synapses form.

Synapse

The junction between neurons where signals are transmitted via neurotransmitters.

Presynaptic

The neuron or terminal that releases neurotransmitters at a synapse.

Postsynaptic

The neuron or cell that receives neurotransmitter signals at a synapse.

Golgi apparatus

Organelle that modifies and packages proteins in the cell.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

ER studded with ribosomes; synthesizes proteins.

Mitochondrion

Organelle producing cellular energy (ATP).

Lysosome

Organelle that digests waste and cellular debris.

Microtubule

Cytoskeletal filament that provides structure and transport inside neurons.

Endothelial cells

Cells lining capillaries; form the barrier of capillaries in the BBB.

Blood-brain barrier (BBB)

Protective barrier around the brain that blocks most chemicals from entering; formed by endothelial cells, astrocytes, and other components.

Astrocyte

Star-shaped glial cell providing nutrients, supporting synapses, and aiding the BBB.

Microglia

Immune-like glial cells that remove waste and pathogens and form glial scars.

Oligodendrocyte

CNS glial cell that forms myelin sheaths around multiple axons.

Schwann cell

PNS glial cell that myelinates a single axon.

Myelin sheath

Lipid-rich layer around axons that speeds neural conduction. Fatty substance

Radial glia

Glial cells guiding neuron migration during development.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Clear fluid that cushions the brain, provides nutrients, and removes waste.

Ventricles

Four CSF-filled cavities in the brain (lateral ventricles, third ventricle, fourth ventricle).

Meninges

Protective coverings of the brain: dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.

Dura mater

Tough outermost meningeal layer.

Arachnoid mater

Web-like middle meningeal layer.

Pia mater

Innermost delicate meningeal layer close to brain tissue.

Forebrain

Largest part of the brain; includes cerebral cortex and limbic system.

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of neural tissue covering the cerebrum; involved in higher functions.

Limbic system

Forebrain structures involved in motivation, emotion, and memory.

Thalamus

Subcortical sensory relay to the cortex.

Hypothalamus

Forebrain region regulating motivated behaviors and hormones.

Pituitary gland

Endocrine gland that releases hormones in response to hypothalamic signals.

Basal ganglia

Group of subcortical nuclei (caudate, putamen, globus pallidus) involved in movement and learning.

Caudate

Part of the basal ganglia involved in movement and learning.

Putamen

Part of basal ganglia involved in movement.

Globus pallidus

Part of basal ganglia involved in movement control.

Hippocampus

Structure involved in memory formation and spatial navigation.

Cerebral ventricles

Ventricles containing CSF within the brain.

Corpus callosum

Thick bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres.

Anterior commissure

White-matter tract connecting the two hemispheres.

Posterior commissure

White-matter tract connecting the hemispheres near the back of the brain.

Gyrus

Ridge on the cerebral cortex.

Sulcus

Groove or valley on the cerebral cortex.

Frontal lobe

Lobe at the front of the brain involved in planning, decision-making, and movement.

Parietal lobe

Lobe processing touch and body position; somatosensory integration.

Occipital lobe

Lobe for visual processing; contains the primary visual cortex (striate).

Temporal lobe

Lobe involved in auditory processing, language, and memory.

Central sulcus

Landmark groove separating frontal and parietal lobes.

Prefrontal cortex

Part of the frontal lobe involved in planning, decision-making, and social behavior.

Phineas Gage

Famous case of frontal lobe damage causing personality and behavior changes.

Perceptual binding

Integration of features from different senses into a unified perception.

Nervous system divisions

CNS vs PNS; Somatic vs Autonomic; Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic.

Autonomic nervous system

Subdivision of the PNS regulating involuntary functions; divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic.

Sympathetic nervous system

Branch of the autonomic system that prepares the body for action (fight-or-flight).

Parasympathetic nervous system

Branch of the autonomic system that conserves energy (rest-and-digest).

Afferent

Carrying information toward the CNS.

Efferent

Carrying information away from the CNS.

Somatic nervous system

PNS subdivision controlling voluntary actions and conveying sensory information to the CNS.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Dorsal root

Sensory input entry point to the spinal cord.

Ventral root

Motor output exit point from the spinal cord.

Spinal cord

CNS structure transmitting signals between brain and body.

Myelination (myelinate)

Process of forming the myelin sheath around axons.

Synaptic transmission

Chemical signaling across a synapse via neurotransmitters.

Neural communication

The overall process by which neurons send, receive, and integrate information.

Afferent pathway

Sensory pathway carrying signals toward the CNS.

Efferent pathway

Motor pathway carrying signals away from the CNS.

Integrating center

CNS region that processes sensory information and coordinates response.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Magnetic stimulation of cortex; can enhance or inhibit activity; used as a 'virtual lesion' and therapy.

Neuroimaging

Techniques for visualizing brain structure and function in living humans.

Structural MRI (sMRI)

MRI modality that images brain anatomy.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

MRI modality measuring brain activity via the BOLD signal.

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

Imaging metabolic activity using a radioactive tracer.

CT/CAT scan

X-ray–based imaging providing 3D brain anatomy.

MEG

Magnetoencephalography; measures magnetic fields from neural activity with high temporal resolution.

EEG

Electroencephalography; records electrical activity from the scalp with high temporal but limited spatial resolution.

ERP (Event-Related Potential)

Averaged EEG response time-locked to a stimulus.

DTI (Diffusion Tensor Imaging)

Imaging method mapping white matter tracts by measuring water diffusion.

BOLD signal

Blood-oxygen-level dependent signal measured by fMRI indicating neural activity.

Spatial resolution

Ability to localize where in the brain activity occurs; higher in MRI-based methods.

Temporal resolution

Ability to measure when brain activity occurs; higher in EEG/MEG.

Multimodal neuroimaging

Using multiple imaging methods together to obtain a fuller understanding of brain function.

Striate cortex

Primary visual cortex (V1) located in the occipital lobe.

White matter

Brain tissue consisting mainly of myelinated axons; connects different gray matter areas.

Gray matter

Brain tissue containing neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses.