Gen Bio 2 Lab Practical

What can fossils show and what are the conditions for fossilization

• bones and teeth can indicate animal size, what they ate

• conditions: rapid burial, oxygen-poor environment, presence of hard body parts, sediment coverage, mineral-rich water, geological stability, and significant amount of time for the process to unfold

Transitional fossils

fossils that show intermediate characteristics between different groups of organisms, providing evidence of evolutionary change over time

• ex: shift from fish to amphibians or dinosaurs to birds

Main Evidence of Evolution

1. Fossils

2. Comparative Anatomy

3. Molecular Biology

4. Embryo Development

5. Biogeography

Homologous structures

arise from a common ancestor, have similar structures but different functions (forelimbs of humans, whales, and bats since they share a similar bone structure)

Analogous structures

serve similar functions but have evolved independently in different species without a common ancestor (like wings in birds and insects)

Archaeopteryx

• Transitional fossil remains that had reptilian and bird characteristics

  • reptilian characteristics: thick bones, teeth, long bony tail

  • bird characteristics: elongated, wing-like hands, feathers

Compare humans and chimps

• Head and Torso:

  • humans: balanced over hips

  • chimps: thrust forward

• Spine:

  • humans: S-shaped

  • chimps: slight curve

• Pelvis:

  • humans: broad, short

  • chimps: long, narrow

• Knee joint:

  • humans: angled inward

  • chimps: angled out a bit

• Foot:

  • humans: femur is larger at the bottom, tibia is larger at the top

• Skull:

  • canines larger in chimps

  • brow bones more protruded in chimps

  • chin more pronounced in chimps

At what category does the classification of chimps and humans first differ?

Family

Vestigal Structures

body structures in present day organisms that no longer serve the original purpose but were probably useful in an ancestor (ex: the eyes of blind mole rats); still inherited as part of the body plan for the species

How can embryological comparisons be used as evidence for the process of evolution?

Embryos with similar structures are assumed to be closely related because the basic structures are due to the most basic genes that even ancestral organisms must’ve had to develop.

Why do we study amino acid differenes?

when we study amino acid differences in the same protein between species we are studying changes in DNA over time

Central Dogma

If an error is made in transcription and translation, a mutation can occur. Over a few generations, organisms that are the same species will all possess the same mutations

Biogeography shows…

• patterns of common ancestry

• isolation

• environmental adaptation

• continental drift

Generalist vs. specialist

Generalist: thrives in broad, varied environments

Specialists: thrive in narrow niches with specific diets/habitats, making them vulnerable to environmental change

Interspecific interactions vs. intraspecific interactions

interspecific: between different species

intraspecific: within the same species

What are the 3 morphological shapes of Bacterium? PROKARYOTIC

• cocci - spherical

• bacilli - rod-shaped

• spirilla - spiral-shaped

What are the 3 types of protists, and their 3 subgroups? EUKARYOTIC

Protozoa — Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena

Algae — Spirogyra, Volvox, Diatoms

Slime Molds — Fungus-like

cause malaria

What are the 3 species of Fungi? EUKARYOTIC

Black Bread Mold (Rhizopus stolonifer), Baby Bella Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), & Shaggy Mane (Coprinus comatus)

• cell walls made of chtin

• molds, yeasts, and mushrooms

Animal-like protists:

Euglena

Animal-like protist:

Paramecium

Animal-like protist:

Amoeba proteus

Algae-like Protist:

Spirogyra

Algae-like Protist:

Volvox globator

Algae-like protist:

Diatoms

Fungi

Coprinus comatus

Fungi

Rhizopus stolonifer (black bread mold)

Parts of a mushroom

Also Hyphae that are the thin filaments inside the stem

Seedless vs seeded

seedless: moss, ferns (use water for reproduction, have spores not seeds)

seeded: gymnosperms, angiosperms

fern type

fern archegonia

fern type

fern sporophyte

moss type

moss antheridia

moss type

moss archegonial head

moss type

moss sporophyte

dominant generation of all:

moss = gametophyte, the rest = sporophyte

gametophyte vs sporophyte

gametophytes: haploid (low-lying)

sporophytes: diploid

What are the 5 types of epithelial tissue? What is the function of epithelial tissue?

1. simple squamous epithelium (1 layer)

2. stratified squamous epithelium (2+ layers)

3. simple cuboidal epithelium (1 layer, dice shaped)

4. simple columnar epithelium (columns, taller than wide, 1 layer)

5. pseudostratified columnar epithelium (1 layer, cloumns, taller than wide, nuclei stacked)

Function: protective layer that covers body surfaces, lines internal cavities, and forms glands.

What type of epithelial tissue is shown?

simple squamous

What type of epithelial tissue is shown?

Stratified Squamous

What type of epithelial tissue is shown?

Simple Cuboidal

What type of epithelial tissue is shown?

Simple Columnar Epithelium

6 Kinds of Connective Tissue and its function

1. Loose Fibrous Connective Tissue

2. Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue

3. Adipose Tissue

4. Compact Bone

5. Hyaline Cartilage

6. Blood

Connective tissue supports, binds, and protects other tissues and organs throughout the body. Connective Tissue proper provides flexibility and strength, bone offers protection, and cartilage provides cushioning. Blood transports nutrients, gases, and waste products.

What type of Connective Tissue is shown?

Loose Fibrous Connective Tissue

What type of Connective Tissue is shown?

Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue

What type of Connective Tissue is shown?

Adipose Tissue

What type of Connective Tissue is shown?

Compact Bone

What type of Connective Tissue is shown?

Hyaline Cartilage

What type of Connective Tissue is shown?

Blood

What are the 3 types of Muscle Tissue?

1. Skeletal Muscle Tissue - responsible for voluntary movement

2. Smooth Muscle Tissue - responsible for involuntary activities

3. Cardiac Muscle Tissue - forms contractile wall of the heart

What kind of tissue is this?

Nervous Tissue

label the following

Directional Terms

• Anterior, Posterior

• Leteral (away from midline) medial (towards midline)

• dorsal (top) ventral (belly)

• Distal (farther from) proximal (closer to)

• rostral (front) caudal (tail)

Oral Cavity

• taste buds

• tongue

• epiglottis

• pharynx

  • trachea

  • esophogus

Neck region

• Larynx

• Esophogus

• Trachea

• Thyroid

• Thymus

Thoracic cavity

• lungs

• heart

• diaphragm

Abdominal Cavity

• Liver

• Stomach

• Small, large intestine

• Rectum

• Mesenteries

• Pancreas

• Spleen

Arteries

• Coronary artery

• Aortic arch

• brachiocephalic artery

• left/right subclavian artery

• left/right common carotid

Male Urogenital System

• kidneys

• ureters

• bladder

• vas deferems

• testes (in epididymus)

Female Urogenital System

• kidneys

• ovaries (bean shaped)

• oviducts (bottom line coming from ovaries)

• uterus

• vagina (bottom of uterus)