CHAPTER 1 - Evolution of Modern Computational Intelligence

Ai

creating machines which solve problems in a way which, done by humans, require intelligence

Turing test

Human level intelligence has not yet been reached if we measure this achievement as passing the ______ ____ which is proposed by Alan Turing

Nick Bostrom

(Future of Humanity Institute, Oxford University) noted that for achieving artificial intelligence, three things are required: hardware, software, and input/output mechanisms.

Software

One problem is ________. Once we get human intelligence level machines, it will be required. In doing so, one has to understand how human brain works. This is part of the current research these days and at least two main directions follow from there: computational neuroscience and molecular nanotechnologies.

Computational neuroscience, molecular nanotechnologies

In doing so, one has to understand how human brain works. This is part of the current research these days and at least two main directions follow from there: _____________ ____________ and _________ ________________.

Hardware

For ________, we really need to have human level speed and high memory machines. In terms of memory, things are promising.

speed

For input/output, _____ matters.

Neuroscience

is concerned with how the individual components of the human brain work. Research up to date reports good computational models of primary visual cortex. But simulating the whole brain requires enormous computing power.

Molecular nanotechnologies

work at nanoscale level which is 1 to 100 nanometers - from 1/1,000,000 to 1/10,000 of the thickness of an American dime. Many of the key structures of human nervous systems exist at nanoscale. The major challenge is to use nanomachines to disassemble a frozen or a vitrified human brain.

1, 100

Molecular nanotechnologies work at nanoscale level which is _ to ___ nanometers - from 1/1,000,000 to 1/10,000 of the thickness of an American dime. Many of the key structures of human nervous systems exist at nanoscale. The major challenge is to use nanomachines to disassemble a frozen or a vitrified human brain.

Ancient Egypt, greece

Although most of the AI related publications consider the birth of AI 15 years after the development of the first electronic computer (in 1941) and 7 years after the development of the invention of the first stored program computer (in 1949), evidences of artificial intelligence can be traced back in _______ _____ and ______.

15

Most of the AI related publications consider the birth of AI __ years after the development of the first electronic computer (in 1941) and 7 years after the development of the invention of the first stored program computer (in 1949)

electronic computer

1941, the development of the first __________ ________

stored program computer

1949, the development of the invention of the first ______ _______ ________

Dartmouth 4

Most of AI scientists consider that the _________ _ summer research project, organized in 1956 by John McCarthy (regarded as father of AI) at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire, where the "artificial intelligence term has been coined" was the actual start of the AI as a science

1956

Most of AI scientists consider that the Dartmouth 4 summer research project, organized in ____ by John McCarthy (regarded as father of AI) at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire, where the "artificial intelligence term has been coined" was the actual start of the AI as a science.

John McCarthy

regarded as father of AI

Logic

is considered as being one of the main roots of AI. AI has been heavily influenced by such ideas. Most members of the AI community would agree that it has an important role to play in at least some central areas of AI research, and an influential minority considers it to be the most important factor in developing strategic, fundamental advances.

5th Century

date. Aristotle invented syllogistic logic, the first formal deductive reasoning system.

syllogistic logic

5th Century, Aristotle invented ___________ _____, the first formal deductive reasoning system.

15th to 16th Century

dates. Invention of clocks as measuring machines

1642

date. Pascal has invented the first mechanical digital calculating machine. This machine was an adding machine only.

Pascal

1642, ______ has invented the first mechanical digital calculating machine. This machine was an adding machine only.

1671

date. German mathematician - philosopher Leibniz designed an improvement of the adding machine such as to incorporate multiplication and division.

Leibniz

1671, German mathematician-philosopher _______ designed an improvement of the adding machine such as to incorporate multiplication and division.

1673

date. The machine known as Step Reckoner was built.

19th Century

date. brings the ingenious project of the first computing machine.

1820

date. Charles Babbage began to build Difference Engine, a mechanical device that can perform simple mathematical calculations and then the Analytical Engine, which was designed to carry out more complicated calculations.

Charles Babbage

1820, ______ _______ began to build Difference Engine, a mechanical device that can perform simple mathematical calculations and then the Analytical Engine, which was designed to carry out more complicated calculations.

Ada Augusta Lovelace

Both devices finally remain just as prototype computing machines. Babbage's work has been later continued by ___ _______ ________, which remains as the world's first programmer.

Difference engine

Babbage's __________ ______ was the first successful automatic calculator

19th Century

date. George Boole's logic theory, also known as Boolean logic or Boolean algebra.

Charles Sanders Peirce

Even though boolean algebra was not much appreciated at the time it has been proposed, later after the publication of Boole's ideas, an American logician _______ _______ ______ spent more than 20 years modifying and expanding them, realizing the potential for use in electronic circuitry and eventually designing a fundamental electrical logic circuit. Pierce never actually built his theoretical logic circuit, being himself more of a logician than an electrician, but he did introduce Boolean algebra into his university logic philosophy courses.

Claude Shannon

It was later when one of Peirce's students - ______ _______, one of the organizers of the Dartmouth conference and one of the pioneers of AI, a Nobel Prize winner among others - made full use of all these ideas.

1893-1903

dates. Gottlob Frege, a German mathematician, essentially reconceived the discipline of logic by constructing a formal system, which in effect, constituted the first predicate calculus

Gottlob Frege

1893-1903, _______ _____, a German mathematician, essentially reconceived the discipline of logic by constructing a formal system, which in effect, constituted the first predicate calculus

1910, 1912, 1913

dates. Bertrand Russell, the British logician who pointed out some of the contradictions of Frege's logic during their correspondence and who refined the predicate calculus, revolutionizes formal logic with his three-volume work he co-authored with Alfred North Whitehead, Principia Mathematica

Bertrand Russell

1910, 1912, 1913, ________ _______, the British logician who pointed out some of the contradictions of Frege's logic during their correspondence and who refined the predicate calculus, revolutionizes formal logic with his three-volume work he co-authored with Alfred North Whitehead, Principia Mathematica

Principia Mathematica

three volume work co authored by Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead in 1910, 12-13

Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead

Principia Mathematica, three volume work, co authored by ________ _______ and ______ _____ _________ in 1910, 12-13

Early 1920s

date. The mathematical logician Emil Post developed his notion of production systems, developed a unification algorithm, and anticipated the later findings of Gödel, Church, and Turing. Post developed a programming language without thinking of a machine on which it could be implemented.

Emil Post

Early 1920s, The mathematical logician ____ ____ developed his notion of production systems, developed a unification algorithm, and anticipated the later findings of Gödel, Church, and Turing. Post developed a programming language without thinking of a machine on which it could be implemented.

20th Century

date. Kurt Gödel, proved the incompleteness of axioms for arithmetic, as well as the relative consistency of the axiom of choice and continuum hypothesis with the other axioms of set theory

Kurt Gödel

20th Century, ____ _____, proved the incompleteness of axioms for arithmetic, as well as the relative consistency of the axiom of choice and continuum hypothesis with the other axioms of set theory

Alan Turing

British mathematician ____ ______ is well known as the founder of some fundamental principles, which are required to prove the evidence of artificial intelligence. The famous Turing test remains until today the biggest challenge for the existence of artificial intelligence.

1943-1945

dates. John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, built the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC).

John Mauchly, J Presper Eckert

1943-1945, ____ _______ and _ _______ ______, built the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC).

George Polya

a Hungarian born American mathematician, suggests in his very famous book - How to solve it - four main steps to approach a problem: understand the problem, devise a plan, carry on with the plan and look back.

Problem solving

remains a central idea of AI and a How to solve it modern version using heuristics has been published in 2004 by Zbigniew Michalewicz and David Fogel

Zbigniew michalewicz, david fogel

How to solve it modern version using heuristics has been published in 2004 by ________ ___________ and _____ _____

Modern ai

The Dartmouth Conference opened the era of new and most significant advances in the AI field. Advances continued in a much faster rhythm than before. Technology was also advancing and this gave more room to more difficult and ambitious projects. AI research centers began forming at MIT and Carnegie Mellon University. The challenges were to create systems that could efficiently solve problems by limiting the search such as The Logic Theorist, and making systems that could learn by themselves

The Logic Theorist

In modern ai, The challenges were to create systems that could efficiently solve problems by limiting the search such as ___ _____ ________, and making systems that could learn by themselves

Newel, Shaw and Simon

the 3 authors of The Logic Theorist. wanted programs that solved problems in the same ways as humans do. They developed the General Problem Solver (GPS) in 1957, which is basically a computer program intended to work as a universal problem solver machine. The program was implemented in the low-level IPL programming language.

General problem solver

developed by Newel, Shaw, and Simon, the authors of The Logic Theorist. which is basically a computer program intended to work as a universal problem solver machine. The program was implemented in the low-level IPL programming language.

1958

date. John McCarthy showed how, given a handful of simple operators and a notation for functions, someone can build a whole programming language. He called this language LISP, for "List Processing," because one of his key ideas was to use a simple data structure called a list for both code and data.

John McCarthy

1958, ____ ________ showed how, given a handful of simple operators and a notation for functions, someone can build a whole programming language. He called this language LISP, for "List Processing," because one of his key ideas was to use a simple data structure called a list for both code and data.

LISP

1958, John McCarthy showed how, given a handful of simple operators and a notation for functions, someone can build a whole programming language. He called this language ____ because one of his key ideas was to use a simple data structure called a list for both code and data.

late 1950s, early 1960s

dates. Margaret Masterman and colleagues from Cambridge design semantic nets for machine translation. A semantic net is a graph, which represents semantic relations among concepts.

Margaret Masterman

late 1950s, early 1960s, ________ _________ and colleagues from Cambridge design semantic nets for machine translation. A semantic net is a graph, which represents semantic relations among concepts.

semantic net

is a graph, which represents semantic relations among concepts.

1961

date. Silvio Ceccato also developed correlational nets, which were based on 56 different relations, including subtype, instance, part-whole, case relations, kinship relations, and various kinds of attributes.

Silvio Ceccato

1961, ______ _______ also developed correlational nets, which were based on 56 different relations, including subtype, instance, part-whole, case relations, kinship relations, and various kinds of attributes.

1961

date. The first industrial robot was installed at General Motors.. It has been developed at Unimation Inc., the first robotic company founded in 1956 by Joseph F. Engelberger (a physicist, engineer and entrepreneur who is referred to as the "Father of Robotics").

Joseph F. Engelberger

a physicist, engineer and entrepreneur who is referred to as the "Father of Robotics"

Japanese

Over the next two decades, the ________ took the lead by investing heavily in robots to replace people performing certain tasks.

1963

date. DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Project Agency) and MIT signed a 2.2 million dollar grant to be used in researching artificial intelligence (to ensure that the US will stay ahead of the Soviet Union in technological advancements).

1966

date. Joseph Weizenbaum form MIT described in Communications of theACM, ELIZA, one of the first programs that attempted to communicate in natural language. In only about 200 lines of computer code, Eliza models the behavior of a psychiatrist (the Rogerian therapist). ELIZA has almost no intelligence— it uses tricks like string substitution and canned responses based on keywords. The illusion of intelligence works best, however, if you limit your conversation to talking about yourself and your life.

Joseph Weizenbaum

1966, ______ __________ form MIT described in Communications of theACM, ELIZA, one of the first programs that attempted to communicate in natural language. In only about 200 lines of computer code, Eliza models the behavior of a psychiatrist (the Rogerian therapist). ELIZA has almost no intelligence— it uses tricks like string substitution and canned responses based on keywords. The illusion of intelligence works best, however, if you limit your conversation to talking about yourself and your life.

ELIZA

developed by Joseph Weizenbaum, one of the first programs that attempted to communicate in natural language. In only about 200 lines of computer code, Eliza models the behavior of a psychiatrist (the Rogerian therapist). ELIZA has almost no intelligence— it uses tricks like string substitution and canned responses based on keywords. The illusion of intelligence works best, however, if you limit your conversation to talking about yourself and your life.

STUDENT

AI project post-GPS. by Daniel G. Bobrow, which could solve algebra word problems and reportedly did well on high school math tests.

ANALOGY

AI project post-GPS. by Thomas G. Evans (written as part of his PhD work at MIT), which solved IQ-test geometric analogy problems.

Bert Raphael

AI project post-GPS. ____ _______'s MIT dissertation on the SIT program that demonstrates the power of logical representation of knowledge for 8 question-answering systems

SHRDLU

AI project post-GPS. By Terry Winograd, which demonstrated the ability of computers to understand English sentences in a restricted world of children's blocks (such as a limited number of geometric shapes).

expert system

Another advancement in the 1970s was the advent of the ______ ______. This predicts the probability of a solution under set conditions. Due to the large storage capacity of computers at the time, expert systems had the potential to interpret statistics, to formulate rules. The applications for real practical problems were extensive, and over the course of ten years, expert systems had been introduced to forecast the stock market, medicine, and pharmacy, aiding doctors with the ability to diagnose disease, and instruct miners to promising mineral locations

DENDRAL

one of the first expert systems. developed at Stanford University. was designed to analyze mass spectra.

MYCIN

one of the first expert systems. developed at Stanford University too has been used to diagnose blood infections and recommend treatments, given lab data about tests on cultures taken from the patient. Although never put to practical use, it showed to the world the possibility of replacement of a medical professional by an expert system.

PROSPECTOR

one of the first expert systems. has been developed by NASA. It takes geological information about rock formations, chemical content, etc, and advises on whether there were likely to be exploitable mineral deposits nearby

PROLOG

The programming language ______ was born of a project aimed not at producing a programming language but at processing natural languages—in this case, French.

1971, 1972

The project gave rise to a preliminary version of PROLOG at the end of ____ and a more definitive version at the end of ____ at Marseille by Alain Colmerauer and Philippe Roussel

Progammation enLogique

The name Prolog stands for ____________ _________ in French and was coined by Philippe Roussel. It can be said that Prolog was the result of a combination between natural language processing and automated theorem-proving.

neural networks

In the early 1980's, researchers showed renewed interest in ______ ________.

Recent work includes:

• Boltzmann machines

• Hopfield nets

• competitive learning models

• multilayer networks

• adaptive resonance theory models

neural networks

are adequately used for data classification and modeling through a learning process

Evolutionary Computation

Another important milestone in the field of AI is the development of ____________ ___________. Under this name, four major domains are covered:

• Genetic and evolutionary algorithms

• Evolution strategies

• Evolutionary programming

• Genetic programming