EMSE 6810 Flashcards

System

An arrangement of part or elements that together exhibit behavior or meaning that the individual constituents do not

System Themes

Synergy, Teams, Component Interaction, and Economic System

Synergy

The whole is more than the sum of its parts. A system's utility is often greater than the utility of its subsystems

Component Interaction

Complex behavior based on mutual feedback systems

Teams

Are two people working together more productive than the same two people working separately? Team of "All Stars" versus team of players accustomed to playing with one another

Economic System

Interest rates, inflation, stock prices, bond prices

Common Themes in a "System"

Purpose/objective, components/parts/elements, emergent behaviors, interaction/inter-related/functionally related, boundary, process which transforms inputs into outputs, hierarchical nature (system consists of subsystems)

System Boundary

External entities interface with the system. External entities are a part of the external environment

Systems Thinking

A way of making sense of the complexity of the world by looking at it in terms of wholes and relationships rather than by splitting it down into its parts.

Systems Thinking

Attempts to balance holistic thinking and reductionist thinking, attempts to avoid potentially contributing to further development of unintended consequences, promotes an understanding of a system by examining the linkages and interactions between the elements that compose the entire system.

Systems Analysis

A research strategy, a perspective on the proper use of the available tools, a practical philosophy of how to best aid a decision-maker with complex problems of choice under uncertainty

Systems Analysis

A systematic approach to helping a decision-maker choose a course of action by investigating his/her full problem, searching out objectives and alternatives, and comparing them in the light of their consequences, using an appropriate framework to bring in expert judgement and intuition to bear on the problem

Systems Analysis

Takes consulting techniques, problem solving, systems thinking, organizational development, and strategic planning

Hard systems

Objective is given, well-defined, quantifiable

Soft systems

Unstructured problem with unclear objectives, ill-defined, non-quantifiable

The elements of analysis

Objectives, alternatives, costs, models, criteria - Quade. Notes that "each of them is present in every analysis of choice although they may not always be explicitly identified"

Complexity - Key Points

Often takes the form of hierarchy. Reflective of interaction capabilities (number of system variables, number of ways of interacting), related to a person's capability to process information (chunking, supersignals)

Complexity - System Descriptions

Two kinds 1) Static, 2) Dynamic. A complete description requires the specification of interaction with other system.

Complexity - Abstraction

The process of excluding degrees of freedom to include only those corresponding to interactions of interest with the following caveats: simpler, follows justifiable procedures, must be related to those of the original system

Complexity - Error

The deviation between actual behavior of a simplified version of the original system

Common Problem Characteristics

widely distributed in space and time, many interconnected but unlike systems, many variables to consider, many potential negative side effects, many decision-makers involved, many constituencies with sometimes competing interests, many uncertainties

Common Challenges

Inadequate knowledge and data, many disciplines involved, inadequate existing approaches, unclear goals and shifting objectives, pluralistic responsibilities, resistance to change in social systems, complexity

Complexity and Uncertainty

Rosenhead and Mingers specify two types of challenges that make problem solving and decision-making difficult

Difference for "Soft" Systems Analysis

Methods differ from traditional operations research and systems analysis on several counts. Method analysts generally do not accept the problem as given, encourage and facilitate the exploration of alternative perspectives, employ diagrammatic methods in collaborative settings, seek understanding and accommodation rather than optimal solutions

Checkland Methodology (7 Stages)

1. Situation considered problematics, 2. Describe a problem situation, 3. (ST) Formulate root definitions of relevant system, 4. (ST) Build conceptual models of systems described in root definitions, 5. Compare conceptual models to real world, 6. Define desirable and feasible changes, 7. Action to feasible and desirable changes

Checkland Methodology

CATWOE, to assist knowledge development. Checkland's six elements of root definition

C

Customers - beneficiaries or victims of the process

A

Actors - who carries out the process, the central figures with the problem or goal

T

Transformation process - the core purpose; converting inputs to outputs. Current state ---> future state

W

World View - How do people on the outside view the problem and make the transformation meaningful

O

Owners - Who could stop the process

E

Environment Constraints - outside elements affecting the system and takes as a given (ex: financial, time, political, social, judicial, cultural, technological, educational, etc.)

Transformation process

Chart with current state in one column and desired state in the second column

Root definition

Uses the PQR formula or Checkland Methodology

PQR Formula

Do "P" by "Q" to achieve "R".

P

What?

Q

How?

R

Why?

Primary focus of systems analysis

The context. What's the problem? What are the principle questions? What is success?

System analysis challenges

Inadequate knowledge and data, diversity of disciplines required for understanding, unique needs of each problem/situation, unclear goals and shifting objectives, redundant responsibilities among involved parties, resistance to change, complexity of modern real-world situations

Systems Analysis Nature

Descriptive, prescriptive, persuasive

RAND Methodology

Formulation, search, evaluation, interpretation, verification

Formulation

The conceptual phase

Search

The research phase

Evaluation

The analytical phase

Interpretation

The judgmental phase

Verification

The scientific phase

Miser and Quade - Systems Analysis Activities

Formulate problem, acquire information, develop analysis approach, analyze information, develop solution approach, evaluate/rank/recommend, implement approach, evaluate analysis, report

IDEF History

Based on Structured Analysis and Design Technique (SADT). 1970's U.S. Air Force Program for Integrated Computer Aided Manufacturing (ICAM).

IDEF0

Functional Model

IDEF1

Information Model

IDEF2

Dynamic Model

IDEF0/FIPS 183/IEEE P1320.1

1991 National Institutes of Standards and Technology (NIST) defined Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS). IDEF0 = FIPS 183. IDEF1 = FIPS 184

IDEF

Integrated Definition

IDEF0

It is comprehensive and expressive, graphically representing a wide variety of enterprise operations to any level of detail, it provides for rigorous and precise expression, it enhances communications between systems analysts, developers, and users, it is well-tested and proved, it can be generated by a wide variety of computer tools

IDEF0 Syntax

Structural components and features: Boxes, arrows, roles, and diagrams

Boxes

A description of what happens in a designated function

Roles

Input, control, mechanism, call, output

Input

Consumed by function to produce output

Control

Condition required for function to produce correct outpus

Mechanism

Support execution of function

Call

Links function with another model or part of same model

Output

Data or objects produced by function

Sequence of System Analysis Process

1) Formulate Problem, 2) Acquire Data, 3) Develop Analysis Approach, 4) Develop Solution Alternatives, 5) Develop Implementation Plan, 6) Write final report

Systems Analysis Philosophy

Has as much to do with finding the problem as solving it

Technical Rationality

The application of scientific theory and technique

Rigor vs. Relevance

Academic rigor may get in the way

Reflection-in-Action

Problem solving within a context of reflective inquiry

In initial task of problem formulation

Avoid committing to a single point of view, avoid thinking too quickly in terms of possible solutions

Undesirable in problem formulation

For the sponsor to hand the analyst the problem statement. For the analyst to begin with a precisely tailored problem statement.

Reflective Contract

1) A partnership between analyst and client, 2) Mutual confrontation on authority and understanding, 3) Mutual quest for answers, 4) May need to build up client's knowledge and confidence through smaller studies that are properly chosen and organized.

Partnership between analyst and client

Slowing down thinking processes, agreement to cooperate on an inquiry, not the classical subservice of client to a professional

Three consulting models

Expertise model, doctor-patient model, process consulting model

Expertise model

client has identified the problem and the kind of help that is needed

Doctor-patient model

Consultant is brought into the organization to find out what is wrong with which part of the organization and then, recommend a remedy

Process Consulting model

Consultant helps the client to perceive, understand, and act upon the process events that occur in the client's environment to improve the situation as defined by the client

Systemic Problems

Chronic and recurring, has been around long enough to have a history, previous attempts to solve the problem did not work or stopped working for a while, there is no obvious reason for the observed behavior

Problem statement triggers

Vary stress patterns, substitute terms, opposite statement, change modifier, replace persuasive words, equations or pictures

Problem Statement Timeline

State the current problem, look at the beginning, then the earlier beginning and the earliest beginning. The significant even at the beginnings identify an alternate problem.

Problem statement

One single clear concise sentence that portrays the problem

Problem statement

Has the behavior, a description of the behavior over time, a measurement of how the behavior has changed over time, the time frame of the behavior, identified the "So What?" of the behavior

Problem statements

DO NOT state the intended outcome (aka objective)

Variables

Problem components that can be measured and whose value can vary and/or vary over time

Variables

Draw them from the situation description

Variables

Assess the merits of solution alternatives

Variables

Must be measurable.

Measurable

Can be measured, has an associated unit of measure, variable or continuously variable

CRD

Causal Relationships Diagram

CRD definition

Consists of two or more variables connected by arrows which indicate cause and effect dependency

Variable Relationship Classes

Direct and Inverse

Direct

An increase (decrease) in one variable causes a corresponding increase (decrease) in the other variable

Inverse

An increase (decrease) in one variable causes a corresponding decrease (increase) in the other variable

Reinforcing loops

Positive Feedback. Ex: The larger the animal population is, the larger it becomes.

Balancing loops

Negative Feedback. Ex: Predator-prey relationships in animal populations are regulated by negative feedback.

Delays

Factored in CRDs

Building CRDs

Formulate the core problem, describe how the problem fits into the situation, choose the key variables, graph the variables behavior over time, hypothesize about how the variables might be interrelated

FDD

Are a fundamental means to depicting process flows and resource utilization

FDD

Fundamental Decomposition Diagram

Eisner's 3 key steps in understanding

Make observations, develop hypotheses, tests these hypotheses

Thinking outside the box

Broaden and generalize, crossover, question conventional wisdom, back of the envelope, expanding the dimensions, remove constraints, thinking with pictures, systems thinking