Module 2 Unification of Germany

Failure of the revolutions

What led to the creation of the Vorparlament in March 1848?

• Press censorship was abolished and a committee under Dahlmann was set up to revise the constitution.

• 5 March 1848, liberals doubted the federal diets ability to implement change so they met at Heidelberg and decided to call a national parliament. This lead to the vorparlament on 31 March.

What was the main purpose of the Vorparlament?

• To resolve how Germany should be organised

• To organise elections for a national Frankfurt Parliament.

• They also had to establish how frequently they would meet, sub committees and administration.

How did events in Vienna and Berlin impact the Vorparlament?

• Political unrest in Vienna in early 1848 created a revolutionary atmosphere that strengthened the legitimacy and urgency of the Vorparlaments goals.

Who made up the Frankfurt Parliament elected after the Vorparlament?

Out of 585 members:

• 157 were lawyers

• 138 civil servants

• Over 100 teachers

• Only 4 artisans and 1 peasant

• Most delegates were middle-class men, with unequal representation (e.g 141 from Prussia and only 2 from Austria)

What were the main challenges faced by the Frankfurt Parliament following the Vorparlament?

• Managing fair elections (as qualifications interpreted differently across states).

• Indirect voting systems

• Unequal regional representation

Despite being largely middle-class, the parliament marked a historic step towards German unification through democratic means. 

What was the first action of the Frankfurt assembly and who became the provisional head of state?

• They created a central provisional government.

• Archduke John of Austria was appointed as the imperial administrator. He accepted and invited nobles like Prince Leiningen of Bavaria to support the new administration.

What was the main challenge in drafting a constitution for a unified Germany?

• They needed a constitution acceptable to all German states, despite differences language, governance and national identity.

• Committees were appointed to tackle the complex legal and political issue involved.

Why did ethnic minorities resist the Frankfurt assembly?

• Groups like Hungarians and Czechs resisted German dominance.

• Czech leader Palacky refused to attend, saying he was not German, and the Prague National committee boycotted the elections.

• This happened as they feared being dominated by a German led state and losing their own national identities. They had their own independence movements and opposed being included in a unified Germany.

• This highlighted the tensions in multi-ethnic regions like Austria and Prussia.

What were the 2 main visions for a unified Germany debated in the assembly?

• Grossdeutchsland: Include all German states, plus Austria and all of Prussia, even non-German states.

• Kleindeutschland: Exclude Austria and non-German Prussian regions, but include the rest of Prussia and all other German states.

How was the Frankfurt Parliament functioning by summer 1848?

• It had grown in popularity, with a president, a cabinet, and active committees drafting legislation.

• Though still provisional, it began to resemble a real national government.

What did Friedrich Hecker want the Vorparlament to do, and why did it fail?

• He wanted it to seize power and create a republic.

• This failed as most members were moderates who preferred to negotiate with princes, so his rebellion failed and he was exiled.

How did Austria and Prussia treat the Frankfurt Parliament?

• They gave lukewarm support, allowing soldiers to swear allegiance to the imperial administrator, but knowing the parliament lacked the power to enforce it.

What happened in the Schleswig-Holstein conflict and how did the Parliament respond?

• After Denmark occupied Schleswig, Prussia intervened and pushed them back.

• The Frankfurt Parliament urged further war, but Prussia, fearing Austria and foreign opposition, instead made peace with the Treaty of Malmo(August 1848)

What was the result of the Treaty of Malmö for the Frankfurt Parliament?

• The parliament was ignored in the peace decision, so the imperial government resigned in protest - this revealed how little real power the parliament had

Why was the Frankfurt Parliament considered powerless by late 1848?

• It had ministries with no authority.

• No army

• No taxes

• No ambassadors

• No control over the police or education.

This made it a ‘Talking shop’ with no real control over the German states.

What were the 50 Articles?

A list of basic human rights proposed by liberal and nationalist delegates in the Frankfurt Parliament, reflecting grievances from before 1848 (e.g., Offenburg and Heppenheim meetings with Gustave von Struve).

Impact:

• Marked a major liberal reform effort with a narrowed focus of unresolved issues.

• Demonstrated the Parliaments aim for unified human rights across the German confederation.

When were the fifty article published and what was their significance?

Published December 1848. They were a huge liberal achievement and showed progress toward German unity, although the shape of Germany was still undecided.

Impact: Gave the Parliament a concrete basis for rights but did not resolve deeper political disagreements.

What happened during the Vienna uprisings in October 1848?

Robert Blum, a Frankfurt Parliament member, was captured and executed by Austria despite parliamentary immunity.

Impact:

• Demonstrated Austria’s refusal to respect the Parliament, undermining its legitimacy.

• Signalled the growing divide between revolutionary ideals and conservative power.

What were the Grossdeutschland and Kleindeutschland solutions debated in the Parliament?

Grossdeutschland: Greater Germany including Austria (led by Schmerling)
Kleindeutschland: Smaller Germany excluding Austria (led by Hessian Gagern)

Impact:

• Highlighted major national divisions; ultimately, Kleindeutschland gained strength after Austria’s refusal to divide its lands.

How did Austrian Emperor Franz Josef and Prince Schwarzenberg influence the German question?

They wanted Germany ruled from Vienna, including Austrian and non-German lands, which parliament rejected.

Impact:

• Austria’s position hardened the divide, making a united Germany under Austria impossible.

What was the outcome of the Frankfurt Parliament’s constitution published in March 1849?

It maintained old borders but was rejected by Austria, Saxony, Hanover, Bavaria, and later Prussia.

Impact:

• The constitution had little practical effect; rejection by major powers led to Parliament’s collapse.

What caused the violence and division after the Malmo Peace Treaty in August 1848?

The parliament narrowly approved peace with Denmark; left-wing members opposed, causing demonstrations and violence, including the murder of conservative members.

Impact:

• Deepened divisions within the parliament and German society; weakened its authority.

Who was Gustave Struve and what did he do?

left-wing revolutionary who led an unsuccessful uprising in Baden in September 1848, proclaiming a German republic.

Impact:

• Highlighted the radical wing’s frustration and willingness to use force; the failure showed limits of revolutionary power.

What were the aims and early achievements of the Frankfurt Parliament?

• Formed in May 1848 after revolutions across German states. Aimed to unify Germany under a liberal and constitutional government. Drafted a constitution, defined a German state, and established a parliament. Sought to balance national unity with individual freedoms and representation.

Imapct 🇦 -It was the first attempt at German unification under liberal and democratic ideals, showing the strength of nationalist sentiment — but also set the stage for internal conflicts.

What were the key factions in the Frankfurt Parliament and their beliefs?

• Café Milani’ – Right-wing; supported a strong monarchy and aristocracy.

• ‘Casino’ – Liberal; wanted a federal state, constitutional monarchy, and parliament.

• ‘Deutscher Hof’ – Left-wing; demanded a republic with parliamentary democracy and universal suffrage.

Impact:

• These ideological splits led to constant disagreements and delay, weakening the parliaments unity and effectiveness.

Why did Frederick William IV of Prussia reject the Frankfurt Parliament’s offer of the imperial crown?

• In April 1849, the crown was offered to him as Emperor of a united Germany.

• He refused because:

  • Accepting it would provoke war with Austria.

  • He believed in the divine right of kings, not political authority from the people.

  • He said he would “not accept a crown from the gutter.”

  • Impact: His rejection destroyed the Parliament’s hopes of unification under liberal terms and proved monarchs still controlled political destiny in Germany.

What was the Tiergarten used for before 1848, and how did its role change in early 1848?

It was a leisure area near the Brandenburg Gate, but by January–February 1848 it became a site for political meetings, debates, and mock assemblies, showing rising political awareness.

Impact:

Reflected growing political awareness and public readiness to challenge authority.

What happened at the Tiergarten in March 1848?

Around 20,000 people gathered demanding political, legal, and constitutional reforms, better living conditions, and labor protection.

Impact: 

Showed widespread frustration and unity across classes; pressured authorities to address reform demands.

How did the Prussian authorities initially respond to unrest in Berlin?

They deployed soldiers to the capital to control protests

What occurred in 18 March 1848 at Palace square?

Frederick William IV appeared on his balcony to cheers but later ordered General Prizzwitz to clear the square; fighting broke out and continued into the night.

Impact: Bloodshed radicalized public opinion; turned peaceful reform into revolution.

What did Frederick William IV do after the March fighting?

He withdrew the army to Potsdam and issued a statement prioritizing civilian safety.

Impact:

• It temporarily calmed unrest, but conservatives (including his brother Prince William) saw it as a weakness. - though he was a wuss

How widespread was unrest beyond Berlin in 1848?

There were 21 disturbances in Königsberg and 46 in Cologne.

Impact:

Demonstrated that revolutionary sentiment was national, not just local.

What reforms did Frederick William IV announce after the March revolution?

He promised to recall the Prussian Estates, introduce a constitution, abolish censorship, and support German unification.

Impact:

Appeased liberals and temporarily; marked the high point of revolutionary success in Prussia.

How did Frederick William IV try to reconcile with Berliners on 19 March 1848?

He bowed to the crowds and rode through Berlin behind a guardsman carrying the German tricolour flag.

Impact:

Publicly associated himself with German unity; boosted popularity among revolutionaries but alienated conservatives and the army

What was the Potsdam Speech (25 March 1848)?

The King addressed officers, asking for loyalty and stating solidiers weren’t needed in Berlin.

Impact:
Restored the army;s trust, reassured Berliners, and stabilized the situation; strengthened his authority.

Who were the new liberal ministers appointed in March 1848?

Camphausen (Prime Minister) and Hansemann (Finance Minister) — both Rhineland liberals.

Impact:

Ended Junker domination; signaled shift toward liberal, middle-class leadership.

What happened when the Prussian Estates were recalled in April 1848?

They passed an election law for the Prussian National Assembly.

Impact:

Established the basis for representative government and political reform

What were the terms of the 1848 election law in Prussia?

All adult males could vote if resident for 6+ months and not receiving poor relief; voting was indirect and done by electoral colleges.

Impact:

Expanded political participation but still excluded the poorest - showed partial democratization

Who made up the new Prussian Estates after elections?

Predominantly upper and middle-class delegates, but also more artisans and peasants than before.

Impact:
Although still limited, it demonstrated widening participation, political inclusion, and gave working classes limited voice.

Why did the King’s government begin to turn conservative again by late 1848?

Frederick William IV remained a monarchist and surrounded himself with conservative advisors who prioritized royal power.

Impact:
Marked the beginning of the counter-revolution - liberals started loosing influence.

Who was General Pfuel and what did he try to achieve as Prime Minister?

An army general and intellectual (Sept–Nov 1848) who tried to reconcile the King and Assembly.

Impact:
Failed to bridge the divide; his resignation showed the impossibility of compromise between monarchy and liberalism.

What did Count Brandenburg do after becoming Prime Minister in November 1848?

The Assembly protested his appointment, but the King adjourned them and moved the session to Brandenburg.

Impact:

Showed the King’s reassertion of control and the growing strength of the conservative reaction.

How was the revolution in Berlin finally suppressed?

General Wrangel entered Berlin with 13,000 troops; martial law declared; political clubs closed; radical newspapers banned.

Impact:

Marked the end of the revolution; restored royal and military dominance.

When and how was the Prussian National Assembly dissolved?

On 5 December 1848, it was formally dissolved by royal decree and replaced by a constitution written by the King.

Impact:

The revolution failed; constitutionalism survived only under royal control.

What was the long-term outcome of the 1848–51 revolution in Prussia?

Liberal and democratic goals were defeated; monarchy and army regained full power.

Impact:
Conservatism won; but constitutional ideas stayed - influencing future Prussian-led unification under Bismarck.

Overall, how did Frederick William IV’s actions shape the 1848–51 revolution?

He initially appeased revolutionaries, then regained control through public gestures and military loyalty.

Impact:

Preserved the monarchy and order while crushing liberal ambitions - this set a conservative foundation for Germany’s future.

When did the Prussian National Assembly open, and what was its first task?

It opened on 22 May 1848; its task was to draft a constitution. Camphausen presented the first document that same day.

Impact:

Marked Prussia’s first formal step toward constitutional government - but immediately exposed tensions between monarch and liberals.

Why was Frederick William IV unhappy with the Assembly’s first constitution draft?

It failed to mention his divine right to rule.

Impact:
Showed his resistance to limiting the Monarchical authority and foreshadowed future conflict with the assembly

What did the Assembly’s second draft of the constitution propose?

It reduced the King’s power, introduced a national militia, and removed privileges of the rural nobility.

Impact:

Angered conservatives and the King, while disappointing radicals — deepening political divisions.

Why did Prime Minister Camphausen resign in 1848?

Because the second draft of the constitution was too radical for conservatives but not radical enough for the left.

Impact:
His resignation symbolized the fragmentation of the liberal movement and the growing strength of conservative forces.

What issue did the Assembly struggle with regarding the army?

The relationship between civilian and military authority, especially after the killing of 14 civilians in Silesia in July 1848.

Impact:

Highlighted the army’s independence from civilian control — a key weakness of the revolution.

Who was Julius Stein and what did he propose?

A deputy from Breslau who called for the army’s loyalty to the constitutional government.

Impact: 

His proposal symbolized liberal hopes for a constitutional monarchy, but ultimately failed as the army remained loyal to the King.

What were the key features of the 1850 Prussian Constitution?

t consolidated royal power and army independence, introduced a two-chamber parliament, and imposed “three-class suffrage” in the lower chamber.

Impact:

Created a facade of constitutionalism while keeping real power with the King and elites.

How did the three-class suffrage system work?

⅓ of votes came from the highest taxpayers, ⅓ from middle, and ⅓ from lowest — meaning 25% of the population (wealthiest) elected two-thirds of representatives.

Impact:

Preserved political dominance of the wealthy; restricted true democracy.

What powers did the Upper and Lower Chambers have under the 1850 constitution?

The Upper Chamber (nobles appointed by the King) could vote on laws but be overruled by the King; the Lower Chamber couldn’t vote on legislation or budget.

Impact:

Ensured parliamentary weakness and maintained autocratic control.

How did the 1850 constitution restrict freedoms?

It censored the press, limited freedom of association, and included measures to suppress civil unrest.

Impact:

Demonstrated a conservative backlash against the 1848 liberal gains.

Why was the 1848 revolution largely a middle-class movement?

Middle-class liberals led assemblies and reforms but feared empowering the working classes.

Impact:
This alienated workers and left the revolution without broad social support.

How did divisions among revolutionaries weaken their cause?

Artisan guilds favored protectionism while liberals supported free trade; these economic divisions pushed artisans toward conservatism.

Impact:

Class-based splits destroyed unity within the revolutionary movement.

How did rulers like Frederick William IV and Emperor Ferdinand undermine the revolutionaries?

They appeared conciliatory, allowing assemblies and reforms temporarily, which calmed tensions.

Impact:

Their patience and strategic moderation bought time for conservative recovery and the eventual counter-revolution.

What happened in Austria following the March 1848 revolution?

A liberal mood took hold; a new parliament was elected and troops were initially confined to barracks.

Impact:

Created temporary reform but lacked long-term structure or leadership.

How did Austria reassert control across its empire?

General Radetzky retook Milan, Windischgrätz crushed Czech revolts, and the army defeated uprisings in Vienna.

Impact:

Military loyalty and discipline ensured the Habsburg monarchy’s survival.

What was the outcome of the October 1848 Vienna revolt?

Windischgrätz’s 60,000 troops defeated 100,000 radical militia; 2,000 were killed; the Emperor returned, dissolved Parliament, and appointed a reactionary government.

Impact:

Marked the triumph of the army and the restoration of Habsburg absolutism.

How did the Hungarian Revolution influence events in Austria?

Hungary’s initial success (Battle of Pákozd) inspired Vienna’s uprising; but Austria, aided by Russia, crushed the Hungarian revolt by August 1849.

Impact:

Showed the solidarity of conservative powers; liberal nationalism was crushed across Central Europe.

What was the key military reason for the failure of 1848 revolutions?

Armies in Prussia, Austria, and elsewhere remained loyal to their rulers.

Impact:

Without military backing, revolutionary governments could not survive.

What happened in Saxony, Palatinate, and Baden in 1849?

Saxony saw uprisings crushed; Palatinate rebels were defeated by Prussian troops; in Baden, 30,000 joined militias but were suppressed.

Impact:

Demonstrated revolutionary disunity and the superior organization of royal armies.

How did Prussia’s ambitions shift after rejecting the Frankfurt crown?

Frederick William IV and his elites pursued the “Kleindeutschland” idea of Prussian-led unification without Austria.

Ipacmt:

Prussia began to see itself as Germany’s natural leader.

What was von Radowitz’s ‘League of Three Kings’?

A proposed alliance of Prussia, Saxony, and Hanover to form a new German union based on the Frankfurt Constitution.

Impact:

Early attempt at Prussian-led unification; failed due to Austria’s opposition and lack of support from other states.

What was the Erfurt Parliament (1850)?

A meeting of pro-Prussian states to establish the “Erfurt Union” — a federation under Prussian leadership.

Impact:

Undermined by fear of Prussian dominance and collapsed due to lack of participation.

What was the Capitulation (or Punctuation) of Olmütz (29 November 1850)?

Prussia was forced by Austria and Russia to abandon the Erfurt Union and demobilize its army.

Impact:

Known as the “Humiliation of Olmütz”; confirmed Austria’s dominance and Prussia’s temporary subordination

How did Austria re-establish control over Germany after 1848?

Prince Schwarzenberg revived the Federal Diet in Frankfurt (May 1850) with Austria as president.

Impact:

Restored pre-1848 political order, and ended hopes for a liberal, unified Germany.

What crisis occurred in Hesse-Kassel in 1850?

Political unrest led to intervention by both Austrian (Diet) and Prussian troops, nearly causing war.

Impact:
Russia supported Austria, which forced Prussia to back down at Olmütz - deepening Prusso-Austrian rivalry.

What was the overall outcome of the Olmütz agreement?

Prussia agreed to joint action in Hesse-Kassel but lost political initiative; Austria dominated the Confederation.

Impact:

Consolidated Austrian leadership in Germany until the 1860’s

How did the revolutions affect liberalism and nationalism by 1851?

Liberals lost influence and rights collapsed; nationalists’ goals survived and were later realized through Prussian militarism.

Impact:

Shift from liberal to conservative nationalism paved the way for Bismarck’s later success.

What type of rule dominated the 1850s and 1860s?

Reactionary conservative rule with social reforms to pacify the masses (e.g., freeing peasants, industrial expansion).

Impact:

Strengthened state control while modernizing society - laid a foundation for authoritarian modernization.

How did 1848–51 change the balance between Prussia and Austria?

It confirmed Austria’s short-term dominance but revealed Prussia’s growing potential as the future leader of German unification.

Impact:

Set the stage for the later Austro-Prussian rivalry.

In what key way was 1848 both a failure and a turning point?

The revolutions failed to achieve liberal democracy, but exposed weaknesses of absolutism and began a long-term shift toward Prussian-led nationalism.

Impact:

1848-51 became the ‘dress rehearsal’ for German unification under conservative, Prussian leadership.