Unit 4: Earth Systems and Resources (copy)

Plate tectonic theory

It states that Earth’s lithosphere is divided into a small number of plates that float on and travel independently over the mantle, with much of Earth’s seismic activity occurring at the boundaries of these plates.

Pangaea

In 1915, Alfred Wegener proposed that all present-day continents originally formed one landmass he called _____.

Seafloor Spreading Theory

geologic process in which tectonic plates —large slabs of Earth's lithosphere —split apart from each other.

lithosphere

The ________ is the solid, outer part of the Earth and is broken into huge sections called plates, which are slowly moving.

plates

The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of the Earth and is broken into huge sections called ______, which are slowly moving.

Subduction zones

These are areas on Earth where two tectonic plates meet and move toward each other, with one sliding underneath the other and moving down into the mantle.

Convergent Boundaries

These occur where two plates slide toward, or collide, with each other.

Cascade Mountain Range

Example of Convergent Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries

These occur when two plates slide away from each other. It can create massive fault zones in the oceanic ridge system and areas of frequent oceanic earthquakes.

Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise

Example of Oceanic Divergent Boundary

East African Great Rift Valley

Example of Continental Divergent Boundary

island arc

When two oceanic plates converge, they create an _______ — a curved chain of volcanic islands rising from the deep seafloor and near a continent.

undersea trench

A deep _____ is located in front of such arcs where the descending plate dips downward.

Transform boundaries

These occur where plates slide past each other in opposite directions.

The San Andreas fault

Example of Transform boundaries

Soils

These are a thin layer on top of most of Earth’s land surface.

Surface Litter

Leaves and partially decomposed organic debris.

A Horizon

Organic matter, living organisms, and inorganic materials; it is very thick in grass lands (topsoil)

E Horizon

zone of leaching, dissolved and suspended materials, under the A/O horizons

Climate

Measured by precipitation and temperature, which results in partial weathering of the parent material, which forms the substrate for soil. The average weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long period.

Parent material

Refers to the rock and minerals from which the soil derives; it’s nature has a direct effect on the ultimate soil profile.

Soil erosion

It is the movement of weathered rock and/or soil components from one place to another caused by flowing water, wind, and human activity.

Landslides

These occur when masses of rock, earth, or debris move down a slope.

Mudslides

It is also known as *debris flows* or *mudflows*, are a common type of fast-moving landslide that tends to flow in channels.

Igneous Rocks

These are formed by cooling and classified by their silica content.

Intrusive igneous rocks

Solidify deep underground, cool slowly, and have a large-grained texture.

Extrusive igneous rocks

Solidify on or near the surface, cool quickly, and have a fine-grained smooth texture.

Metamorphic Rocks

These are formed by intense heat and pressure, high quartz content.

Sedimentary

These are formed by the piling and cementing of various materials over time in low-lying areas.

Gravel

* Coarse particles.
* Consists of rock fragments.

Sand

* Sedimentary material coarser than silt.
* Water flows through too quickly for most crops.
* Good for crops and plants requiring low amounts of water.

Loam

* About equal mixtures of clay, sand, silt, and humus. Rich in nutrients.
* Holds water but does not become waterlogged. Particle size can vary.

Silt

* Sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles between the sizes of sand and clay.
* Easily transported by water.

Clay

* Very fine particles.
* Compacts easily.
* Forms large, dense clumps when wet.

Aeration

Refers to how well a soil is able to absorb oxygen, water, and nutrients.

Degree of Soil Compaction

It is measured by dry unit weight and depends on the water content and compaction effort.

Nutrient-Holding Capacity

The ability of soil to absorb and retain nutrients so they will be available to the roots of plants.

Permeability

The measure of the capacity of the soil to allow water and oxygen to pass through it.

pH

It is the measure of how acidic or basic soil is.

Pore Size

Describes the space between soil particles.

Size of soil and particles

It determines the amount of moisture, nutrients, and oxygen that the soil can hold along with the capacity for water to infiltrate.

Water holding capacity

It is controlled primarily by the soil texture and the soil organic matter content.

Soil texture

A reflection of the particle size distribution of soil.

**Great Oxidation Event (GOE)**

* 2.5 billion years ago killed almost all life on Earth.
* It was a time period when the Earth’s atmosphere and the shallow ocean experienced a rise in oxygen.

Nitrogen (N2)

* Fundamental nutrient for living organisms.
* Found in all organisms, primarily in amino acids and nucleic acids.
* Makes up about 3% of the human body by weight.
* Deposits on Earth through nitrogen fixation and reactions involving lightning and subsequent precipitation.

Oxygen (O2)

* By mass, the third most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium.
* The most abundant element by mass in Earth’s crust, making up almost half of the crust’s mass as silicates.

Water Vapor (H2O)

* Largest amounts are found near the equator, over oceans, and in tropical regions.
* Polar areas and deserts lack significant amounts of _____.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

* Produced during cellular respiration, the combustion of fossil fuels, and the decay of organic matter.
* Required for photosynthesis
* Major greenhouse gas contributing to global warming

Troposphere

The lowest portion of Earth’s atmosphere, 0–6 miles (0–10 km) above Earth’s surface.

Stratosphere

Ozone (O3) absorbs high-energy ultraviolet radiation from the sun and is broken down into atomic oxygen (O) and diatomic oxygen. (ozone layer)

Weather

It is caused by the movement or transfer of heat energy, which results from the unequal heating of Earth’s surface by the sun.

Convection

It is the primary way energy is transferred from hotter to colder regions in Earth’s atmosphere and is the primary determinant of weather patterns.

Air Mass

A large body of air that has similar temperature and moisture content.

Albedo

An expression of the ability of surfaces to reflect sunlight.

Altitude

The distance above sea level.

Greenhouse Effect

Without this effect, Earth would be cold and inhospitable.

heat energy

Climate is influenced by how ______ is exchanged between air over the oceans and the air over land.

Moisture Content of Air

It is a primary determinant of plant growth and distribution and is a major determinant of biome type.

Pollution

Greenhouse gases are emitted from both natural sources and anthropogenic sources.

temperature cycles

Daily ________ are primarily influenced by Earth’s rotation on its axis.

Sulfur-rich volcanic eruptions

It can eject material into the stratosphere, potentially causing tropospheric cooling and stratospheric warming.

Volcanic aerosols

These exist in the atmosphere for an average of one to three years.

They’re injected into the stratosphere can also provide surfaces for ozone-destroying reactions.

\

Trade Winds

These are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics near Earth’s equator, within the troposphere or lower portion of Earth’s atmosphere.

Coriolis Effect

A phenomenon wherein earth’s rotation on its axis causes winds to not travel straight, which causes prevailing winds in the Northern Hemisphere to spiral clockwise out from high-pressure areas and spiral counterclockwise toward low-pressure areas.

Hadley Cells

* Air heated near the equator rises and spreads out north and south.
* After cooling in the upper atmosphere, the air sinks back to Earth’s surface within the subtropical climate zone.

Ferrel Cells

* Develop between 30° and 60° north and south latitudes.
* The descending winds of the Hadley cells diverge as moist tropical air moves toward the poles in winds known as the westerlies.

Polar cells

These cells originate as icy-cold, dry, dense air that descends from the troposphere to the ground.

Hurricanes

* _____ begin over warm oceans in areas where the trade winds converge.
* A subtropical high-pressure zone creates hot daytime temperatures with low humidity that allow for large amounts of evaporation, with the Coriolis effect initiating the cyclonic flow.

Storm Surge

A rise in sea level that occurs during tropical cyclones, typhoons, or hurricanes.

Tornadoes

These are wirling masses of air with wind speeds close to 300 miles per hour (485 kph).

Monsoons

These are strong, often violent winds that change direction with the season.

Watershed

A land area that drains rainfall and snowmelt into a lake, ocean, or aquifer.

Mississippi River watershed

The largest watershed in the United States, which drains more than one million square miles or land.

Watershed management

It reduces pesticides and fertilizers that wash off farm fields and into nearby waterbodies by using land, forest, and water resources in ways that don't harm plants and animals.

angle of the sunlight

The amount of heat energy received at any location on Earth is a direct effect of the _______ reaching the Earth’s surface.

Latitude

A measure of distance either north or south from the equator.

Tropic of Cancer

The northernmost latitude reached by the overhead sun.

Tropic of Capricorn

The southernmost latitude reached by the overhead sun.

Mountain ranges

These are barriers to the smooth movement of air currents across continents.

leeward

The mountain range's _____ side is drier than the windward side because air on this side has less moisture.

Rain Shadow Effect

The drier situation which is directly responsible for the plants that grow there, which in turn affects the animals that live there.

Upwelling

It occurs when prevailing winds, produced through the Coriolis effect and moving clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, push warmer, nutrient-poor surface waters away from the coastline

El Niño

* Air pressure patterns reverse direction, causing trade winds to decrease in strength.
* This causes the normal flow of water away from western South America to decrease “pile up.”

La Niña

* Trade winds that blow west across the tropical Pacific are stronger than normal.
* This then results in an increase in the upwelling off of South America.
* This then results in cooler-than-normal sea surface temperatures off of South America.

mechanical weathering

the physical breakdown of rocks and minerals, for example by wind or water or ice

Chemical Weathering

The process that breaks down rock through chemical changes, such as acid rain

0 horizon

the top layer of the surface containing inorganic solids, decaying organic matter, and living organisms

B Horizon

Tends to be yellowish in color due to the accumulation of iron, aluminum, humid compounds, and clay leached from A and E horizons (subsoil)

C Horizon

The least-weathered soil horizon, which always occurs beneath the B horizon and is similar to the parent material

December Solstice

northern hemisphere tilts away from sun and has shortest day and longest night; southern hemisphere tilts toward sun and has longest day and shortest night

June Solstice

Northern Hemisphere tilts toward sun and has longest day and shortest night; Southern Hemisphere tilts away from sun and has shortest day and longest night

March Equinox

equator faces sun directly; neither pole tilts toward sun; all regions on earth experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness (\*Northern Hemisphere SPRING)

September Equinox

equator faces sun directly; neither pole tilts toward sun; all regions on earth experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness (\*Northern Hemisphere FALL)