History 102 – Western Civilization Unit One

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering the Renaissance, the Reformation, European power structures, the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution based on the Western Civilization Unit One study guide.

How did the Renaissance mark a shift from the medieval period?

It moved away from the rigid, strictly religious focus of medieval scholasticism toward a worldview centered on human potential, science, and the arts.

What are the Humanities, and why were they central to Renaissance education?

They are disciplines focused on human culture (art, music, theater, philosophy, history) intended to develop well-rounded, critical-thinking citizens who could improve secular society.

Why was Giovanni Pico della Mirandola condemned by the Catholic Church?

His syncretic ideas in the Oration on the Dignity of Man drew from non-Christian traditions, which the Church viewed as heretical and a threat to spiritual authority.

What is the historical significance of the hidden image in Michelangelo’s The Creation of Adam?

It contains an anatomically accurate cross-section of the human brain, reflecting how artists dissected cadavers to advance science and suggesting God bestowed intellect upon humanity.

Why were the city-states of northern Italy suited for the emergence of the Renaissance?

They were the primary gateway for wealthy Mediterranean trade, creating a prosperous merchant class with disposable income to fund art, education, and philosophy.

Why did the Pope seek to create conflicts among the Italian city-states?

To prevent any single regional power from uniting Italy and threatening the independence of the Papal States, ensuring the Vatican remained the dominant authority.

What was the significance of Johannes Gutenberg’s 1440 invention?

The movable-type printing press allowed for the mass production of books, which lowered costs, boosted literacy, and rapidly spread Renaissance and Reformation ideas.

What techniques did Leonardo da Vinci use to bring realism to his paintings?

He utilized the golden ratio for proportions, sfumato for realistic shading, and a deep understanding of human anatomy.

What factors transformed the Italian economy from feudalism to a commercial system?

Italy's monopoly on eastern spice routes and a labor shortage caused by the Black Plague, which increased wages and allowed a middle class to engage in conspicuous consumption.

What was the significance of the Great Siege of Malta in 1565?

The Knights Hospitaller defeated the Ottoman Empire, halting the westward expansion of Ottoman naval power and preventing a potential invasion of Southern Europe.

What were the primary consequences of the Reconquista?

The unification of Spain under Ferdinand and Isabella and the forced conversion or expulsion of hundreds of thousands of Jews and Muslims following the fall of Granada in 1492.

How did the Sale of Indulgences lead to the Protestant Reformation?

The commercialization of faith through certificates promising to reduce time in purgatory sparked public outrage over corruption, prompting Martin Luther to launch the movement.

Who were the key figures of the English Reformation and what were their roles?

King Henry VIII severed ties with Rome to establish the Anglican Church, and his daughter Elizabeth I later solidified England's Protestant identity.

What factors fueled the Golden Age of England?

Political stability under Elizabeth I and national pride following the 1588 defeat of the Spanish Armada fostered commercial expansion and a cultural renaissance.

What was the status of Eastern European peasants in the 16th and 17th centuries?

They experienced a regression into 'second serfdom,' where they were legally bound to the soil to provide cheap agricultural labor for Western export markets.

What were considered vital signs of status among European peasantry?

Owning livestock (a draft animal or pig), possessing grain reserves, or having a home with glass windows, a chimney, or a tile roof.

How did absolute monarchs enforce their power in Europe?

Through sprawling royal bureaucracies, professional standing armies, and alliances with wealthy merchant classes while diminishing the influence of regional nobles.

What was the outcome of the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648?

It ended the Thirty Years’ War, recognized state sovereignty, and established a modern diplomatic balance of power.

What is the core theory of Mercantilism?

A nation's power depends on accumulating wealth (gold and silver) by regulating trade, establishing colonies for raw materials, and maintaining a positive balance of exports.

Why were certain groups targeted with accusations of witchcraft?

Single, widowed, or independent older women were scapegoated for natural disasters because they lacked male protection and challenged patriarchal social structures.

What are the core ideas of the Enlightenment?

Human progress, science, empirical reason, natural rights, individual liberty, religious tolerance, and the separation of church and state.

What is Deism?

A religious philosophy viewing God as a cosmic 'watchmaker' who created the universe according to natural laws but does not intervene in daily human affairs.

What were the lasting consequences of the French and Indian War?

The total expulsion of French power from mainland North America and a massive British national debt that led to aggressive colonial taxation.

How did Salutary Neglect impact the American colonies?

The loose enforcement of British trade laws allowed the colonies to develop independent economies, autonomous self-governance, and a habit of self-determination.

What was Britain's primary mistake in its attempt to control the American colonies?

Failing to grant the colonists political representation in Parliament, leading to the unifying cry of 'no taxation without representation'.

What is the historically accurate description of the Boston Massacre?

It was a chaotic riot where colonists attacked British soldiers with snowballs and ice; panicking soldiers fired, killing five, which was then used as anti-British propaganda.

Why was the Battle of Saratoga considered the turning point of the American Revolution?

The victory convinced France to form an official military alliance with the Americans, providing vital funding, troops, and naval support.

How did the American Revolutionary War affect France?

It left France on the brink of financial bankruptcy and inspired French citizens with radical ideas of liberty and equality.

Who were the Sans-culottes?

Militant, working-class radicals of Paris who drove the revolution's radical phase through street violence and pressure for extreme measures.

What was the objective of the 'Tennis Court Oath'?

The National Assembly vowed not to disband until they had drafted a new constitution for France after being locked out of their meeting hall by Louis XVI.

Why was the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, significant?

It resulted in the physical destruction of a symbol of absolute tyranny and marked the true beginning of the popular revolution.

What triggered the women’s march on Versailles?

A severe bread shortage and skyrocketing food prices, combined with rumors that the King was hoarding grain.

Why were Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette executed?

They were convicted of high treason for secretly conspiring with foreign nations to invade France and crush the revolution.

What was the impact of the Reign of Terror on France?

Led by the Committee of Public Safety, it resulted in over 30,000 executions via guillotine and created an atmosphere of fear that eventually collapsed the radical government.

How did Napoleon Bonaparte rise to power?

He was a successful military general who capitalized on the political chaos of the Directory to launch a coup d'état in 1799.

What were the key achievements of the Napoleonic Code?

It replaced fractured feudal laws with a standardized framework that institutionalized legal equality for all male citizens and freedom of religion.

What was the symbolic meaning behind Napoleon crowning himself?

It demonstrated that his authority was secured by his own power and merit, rather than being granted by the divine right of the Catholic Church.

What was the Continental System, and what was its result?

It was an economic blockade against Great Britain that failed, instead choking continental economies and leading Napoleon into ruinous wars.

What final military defeats led to Napoleon's permanent downfall?

The 1812 invasion of Russia, the Battle of Leipzig, and his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.