(CIE A2 Biology) Genetic engineering specifics - enzymes/vectors/promoters/markers (based on SaveMyExams revision notes)

Genetic Engineering

The deliberate modification of characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material.

Restriction Endonucleases

Enzymes that cut DNA strands at specific sequences to isolate desired genes.

Reverse Transcriptase

An enzyme that synthesizes complementary DNA (cDNA) from an mRNA template.

DNA Polymerase

An enzyme that converts single-stranded cDNA into double-stranded DNA.

DNA Ligase

An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds to splice DNA fragments.

Sticky Ends

Uneven ends of DNA fragments created by restriction enzymes that facilitate the joining of DNA pieces.

Blunt Ends

Even ends of DNA fragments created by cutting straight across the DNA.

Plasmids

Small, circular rings of double-stranded DNA that can replicate independently in bacterial cells.

Transformation

The process by which plasmids are introduced into bacteria.

Adenovirus

A type of virus used as a vector in gene therapy.

Liposomes

Small spherical vesicles with a phospholipid layer used to deliver genes.

Promoter

A region of DNA that initiates transcription and determines gene expression.

Marker Genes

Genes used to identify which cells have been successfully transformed with recombinant DNA.

Antibiotic Resistance Genes

Genes that confer resistance to antibiotics, often used as markers in genetic engineering.

Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)

A protein that emits green fluorescence when exposed to ultraviolet light, used as a marker.

cDNA (Complementary DNA)

DNA synthesized from an mRNA template using reverse transcriptase.

Transcription

The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.

RNA Polymerase

An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during transcription.

mRNA

Messenger RNA, which carries the genetic information from DNA for protein synthesis.

Introns

Non-coding sequences in a gene that are removed during RNA processing.

Eukaryotic Cells

Cells that contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Scientific Modification

The process of altering organisms through genetic engineering techniques.

Vector

A vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus, used to transfer genetic material into another cell.

Calcium Chloride Solution

A chemical solution used to facilitate the uptake of plasmids by bacterial cells.

Electroporation

A technique that uses an electrical field to increase cell permeability to DNA.

Recombinant Plasmid

A plasmid that contains a fragment of DNA from another organism.

Transformation Efficiency

The percentage of cells that successfully take up the plasmid during transformation.

Bacterial Plasmids

Plasmids that are found naturally in bacteria and can carry genes for various traits.

Gene Therapy

A medical technique that modifies a person's genes to treat or prevent disease.

Retroviruses

A type of virus that can integrate its RNA into the host genome.

Gene Expression Regulation

Control of the timing and rate of gene expression.

Gene Isolation

The process of separating a specific gene from the rest of the DNA.

Phosphodiester Bonds

Covalent bonds that form the backbone of DNA and RNA.

Bacterial Transformation Process

The introduction of foreign DNA into bacteria using methods like heat shock or electroporation.

Lentiviruses

A subclass of retroviruses used in gene therapy to deliver genetic material.

Non-coding DNA

DNA sequences that do not encode for proteins but can have regulatory functions.

β-galactosidase

An enzyme produced by bacteria that is involved in lactose metabolism.

Gene Modifications

Alterations made to the genetic material of an organism.

Expression of Insulin Gene

The transcription and translation process resulting in the production of insulin.

Marker Identification

The method of detecting transformed cells in genetic engineering.

Gene Cloning

The process of creating copies of a specific gene.

Nucleotide Pairing

The interaction between complementary bases in DNA during replication.

Viral Vectors

Genetically modified viruses used to deliver genes into host cells.

Phospholipid Layer

A double layer of phospholipids that makes up the cell membrane and liposomes.

Ultraviolet Light Detection

A technique used to identify transformed bacteria by fluorescence.

Safety Concerns in Genetic Engineering

Risks associated with gene transfer, including antibiotic resistance spread.

Fluorescent Markers

Genes that code for fluorescent proteins, allowing for easier identification of modified cells.

Cystic Fibrosis Treatment

Gene therapy approaches aimed at introducing functional genes into patients with cystic fibrosis.