AP PSYCH UNIT 2.1-2.8 STUDY GUIDE

Bottom-up processing

Information processing that starts with sensory input and builds up to perception.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, using pre-existing knowledge to interpret data.

Schema

A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.

Perceptual set

A predisposition to perceive things in a certain way based on expectations and experiences.

Gestalt psychology

A psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of its parts.

Closure

The tendency to fill in gaps in a visual image to create a complete, whole object.

Figure and ground

A principle of perception that separates an image into a main object (figure) and the background (ground).

Proximity

The tendency to perceive objects that are close together as being part of a group.

Similarity

The tendency to group together objects that are similar in appearance.

Attention

The process of focusing cognitive resources on a specific stimulus or task.

Selective attention

The ability to focus on one particular stimulus while ignoring others.

Cocktail party effect

The ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment while filtering out background noise.

Inattentional blindness

Failure to notice visible objects or events because attention is focused elsewhere.

Change blindness

Failure to notice changes in the environment.

Binocular depth cues

Depth perception cues that depend on the use of both eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence.

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth based on the difference in images between the two eyes.

Convergence

A binocular cue for depth perception, referring to the extent to which the eyes turn inward when looking at an object.

Monocular depth cues

Depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

Relative clarity

A monocular cue where hazy objects appear further away than clear, sharp objects.

Relative size

A monocular cue where smaller objects are perceived as being further away compared to larger objects.

Texture gradient

A monocular cue where surfaces appear more detailed up close and blurrier as they recede into the distance.

Linear perspective

A monocular cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they go into the distance.

Interposition

A monocular depth cue where one object partially blocks the view of another, making the blocked object appear further away.

Apparent movement

The perception of movement in a stationary object caused by alternating visual stimuli.

Prototypes

The best example or representation of a concept or category.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information based on prior knowledge and experiences.

Assimilation

The cognitive process of incorporating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

The cognitive process of modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information.

Algorithms

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristics

Simple, efficient rules or mental shortcuts used to make decisions or solve problems quickly.

Representativeness heuristic

A mental shortcut where people classify something based on how similar it is to a typical case.

Availability heuristic

A mental shortcut where people make decisions based on how easily examples come to mind.

Mental set

The tendency to approach problems in the same way that has worked in the past.

Priming

The unconscious activation of certain associations, predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

Framing

The way an issue is presented, which can affect decisions and judgments.

Gambler's fallacy

The mistaken belief that if something happens more frequently than normal, it will happen less frequently in the future.

Sunk-cost fallacy

The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in time, effort, or money has been made.

Executive functions

Higher-order cognitive processes, such as planning, decision-making, and problem-solving.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent thinking

A thought process used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.

Convergent thinking

A thought process that focuses on finding a single, correct, solution to a problem.

Functional fixedness

The tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions, which can hinder problem-solving.

Storage

The process of maintaining information in memory over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information from memory.

Explicit memory

Memories of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

Episodic memory

A type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences.

Semantic memory

A type of explicit memory that involves knowledge of facts, concepts, and meanings.

Implicit memory

Memories that are not consciously recalled, such as procedural memory for tasks and skills.

Procedural memory

A type of implicit memory for performing tasks or skills, often without conscious awareness.

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention in the future.

Long-term potentiation

A lasting increase in synaptic strength, believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Working memory model

A model of short-term memory that includes a central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad.

Primary memory system

The system responsible for the temporary storage of information (e.g., short-term or working memory)

Working memory

A system for temporarily holding and processing information needed for cognitive tasks.

Central executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and coordinates tasks.

Phonological loop

A component of working memory that processes verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatioal Sketchpad

A component of working memory that processing visual and spatial information.

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

Multi-store model

A memory model suggesting that information passes through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Iconic memory

A type of sensory memory that holds visual information for a brief period.

Echoic memory

A type of sensory memory that holds auditory information for a few seconds.

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort, like studying for an exam.

Encoding

The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Levels of processing model

A theory that suggests memory retention depends on the depth of processing, with deeper processing leading to a better recall.

Shallow encoding

Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

Deep encoding

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words, leading to a better retention.

Levels of processing

Structural, phonemic, semantic

Structural

How something looks.

Phonemic

How something sounds.

Semantic

What something means.

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids that use vivid imagery or organizational devices to improve recall.

Method of loci

A mnemonic device that involves associating information with specific locations in a familiar space.

Chunking

Organizing information into familiar, manageable units to aid memory retention.

Categories

A method of organizing information into logical or related groups for easier recall.

Hierarchies

A system of grouping information into levels or orders based on relationships, from broad to specific.

Spacing effect

The phenomenon where distributed study or practice leads to better long-term retention than massed study.

Memory consolidation

The process of stabilizing a memory after it is initially encoded.

Massed practice

Cramming information into memory in a short amount of time, leading to less effective retention.

Distributed practice

Spreading out study sessions over time, leading to more effective long-term memory retention.

Serial position effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

Primacy effect

The tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list more easily.

Recency effect

The tendency to remember items at the end of a list more easily.

Short-term memory

The memory system that holds a small amount of information for a brief period (about 20-30 seconds).

maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information over and over to keep it in short-term memory or to encode it into long-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the information to be remembered.

Memory retention

The ability to maintain or keep information in memory over time.

Autobiographical memory

A type of memory system involving the recollection of one's own life experiences.

Retrograde amnesia

The inability to recall past memories, typically caused by a brain injury or trauma.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new memories after an incident or brain injury.

Alzheimer's disease

A progressive neurological disorder that leads to memory loss and cognitive decline.

Infantile amnesia

The inability of adults to retrieve memories from early childhood, typically caused by brain injury or trauma.

Recall

The retrieval of information without any cues, such as answering a fill-in-the-blank question.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information when presented with it, such as in a multiple-choice test.

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that help trigger or bring information from memory to mind.

Context-dependent memory

The tendency to recall information more easily when in the same context or environment where it was learned.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one's current mood.

State-dependent memory

The tendency to recall information better when in the same state (e.g., emotional or physical) as when the memory was encoded.

Testing effect

The enhanced memory performance that results from retrieving information rather than simply reviewing it.