EARTH-SCIENCE MIDTERMS (FINAL)

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms from the lecture notes on the expanding universe, Solar System, Earth systems, materials, and mineral resources.

Universe

All of space, time, matter, and energy; includes stars, planets, galaxies, radiation, and dark matter.

Big Bang Theory

The origin of the universe ~13.8 billion years ago from a singularity, followed by expansion.

Inflation

Rapid expansion of the universe in the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang.

Dark Energy

Energy driving the accelerated expansion of the universe, about 70% of its content.

Dark Matter

Invisible matter detectable via its gravitational effects, about 25% of the universe.

Ordinary Matter (Baryonic Matter)

Atoms that make up stars, planets, and life; about 5% of the universe.

Radiation

Electromagnetic energy (light, microwaves, etc.); a very small percent of the universe’s content.

Galaxy

A large system of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter.

Spiral Galaxy

A galaxy with a flat disk and spiral arms.

Elliptical Galaxy

A galaxy with a more rounded, featureless shape and little gas.

Irregular Galaxy

A galaxy without a distinct regular shape.

Solar System

The Sun, planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and other bodies orbiting the Sun.

Star

A luminous plasma sphere, mainly hydrogen and helium, powered by nuclear fusion.

Hydrogen

Lightest and most abundant element, primary fuel for stars.

Helium

Second-most abundant element in stars; produced by fusion.

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)

The afterglow of the early universe; a key evidence for the Big Bang.

Redshift

Increase in wavelength of light from distant objects, indicating recession and expansion.

Hubble’s Law

Relationship between galaxy redshift and distance, evidencing cosmic expansion.

Abundance of Light Elements (H, He, Li)

Observed proportions of hydrogen, helium, and lithium from Big Bang nucleosynthesis.

Accelerating Expansion

The speeding up of the universe’s expansion, attributed to dark energy.

Nebula

A cloud of dust and gas from which stars and planets form.

Accretion Disk

Disk of material around a young star from which planets can form.

Planetesimal

Small solid bodies that can accumulate to form planets.

Protoplanet

A developing planet formed from colliding planetesimals.

Terrestrial Planets

Earth-like planets with solid surfaces (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars).

Jovian Planets

Gas giant planets with thick atmospheres and many moons (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune).

Dwarf Planet

A planet-like body that orbits the Sun but has not cleared its neighborhood (e.g., Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Ceres).

Inner Planets

Planets closest to the Sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars).

Outer Planets

Planets beyond the asteroid belt (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune).

Earth

The habitable planet with liquid water, protective atmosphere, and life-supporting conditions.

Habitable Planet

A planet with the right conditions (liquid water, atmosphere, energy) to support life.

Liquid Water

Water in liquid form, essential for life as we know it.

Plate Tectonics

The movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates shaping continents and oceans.

Protective Atmosphere

Earth’s gaseous envelope that shields life and supports climate.

Magnetic Field

A planetary magnetic field that helps shield the surface from charged particles.

Right Chemical Ingredients

Presence of essential elements like carbon and other compounds for life.

Four Major Systems

Geosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, and Biosphere.

Geosphere

Solid Earth: rocks, soil, landforms, and Earth’s interior.

Hydrosphere

All water on Earth: oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers, groundwater.

Atmosphere

Gases surrounding Earth: nitrogen, oxygen, and trace gases; weather and climate.

Biosphere

All living things: plants, animals, humans, bacteria.

Crust

Outermost layer of Earth; continental (granite) and oceanic (basaltic).

Mantle

Second layer; solid but flows slowly; contains asthenosphere.

Outer Core

Liquid iron-nickel layer that generates Earth’s magnetic field.

Inner Core

Solid iron-nickel sphere at Earth's center.

Cryosphere

Frozen parts of Earth (ice, glaciers) that affect climate and water resources.

Troposphere

Lowest atmospheric layer; weather occurs here.

Stratosphere

Layer above troposphere; contains the ozone layer.

Mesosphere

Layer where most meteors burn up.

Thermosphere

Layer heated by solar radiation; satellites can be found here.

Exosphere

Outermost atmospheric layer where space begins.

Nitrogen

Major atmospheric gas (about 78%); essential for life’s molecules.

Oxygen

Major atmospheric gas (about 21%); essential for respiration.

Water Cycle

Cycle of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection.

Oceans

Large bodies of saltwater covering major portions of Earth’s surface.

Ecosystem

Interaction of living organisms with their physical environment.

Living Characteristics

Traits of living things: respond to environment, grow, reproduce, maintain homeostasis, made of cells.

Natural Materials

Materials found in nature (e.g., cotton, wood) used as resources.

Man-Made Materials

Materials synthesized by humans (e.g., plastic, glass, metal alloys).

Cotton

Soft, breathable natural fiber used in clothing and textiles.

Wood

Natural, strong material used in construction and tools.

Plastic

Synthetic polymer; durable and flexible; widely used in packaging and products.

Glass

Transparent, rigid material made from silica; used in containers and windows.

Metal

Dense, conductive material (e.g., iron, aluminum) used in tools and infrastructure.

Mineral Resource

Concentrations of solid materials in Earth's crust with economic value.

Metallic Mineral

Minerals that yield metals (e.g., gold, copper, iron).

Nonmetallic Mineral

Minerals without metallic content (e.g., talc, fluorite, quartz, sand).

Ore Deposit

Concentrated material that can be mined profitably.

Mineral Occurrence

Scientifically interesting concentrations of minerals.

Aggregate

Nonmetallic filler material (cement, asphalt) from crushed rock.

Magmatic Ore Deposits

Ore-forming deposits formed by magmatic processes (crystal fractionation, partial melting).

Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

Ore-forming deposits formed by hot, metal-rich fluids moving through rock.

Vein Deposit

Narrow mineral zones within faults or fissures.

Disseminated Deposit

Low-concentration minerals spread through large rock volumes.

Massive Sulfide Deposits

Deposits formed at oceanic spreading centers when sulfides precipitate.

Sedimentary Ore Deposits

Ore deposits formed by chemical precipitation from water bodies.

Clastic Sedimentary Ore

Formed from fragments of rocks.

Chemical Sedimentary Ore

Deposits like rock salt or limestone formed by chemical processes.

Biogenic Sedimentary Ore

Deposits formed by biological activity (e.g., phosphate rocks, diatomite).

Placer Deposits

Concentrations formed by gravity in sedimentary environments (streams, coastlines).

Residual Deposits

Minerals left behind after chemical weathering and leaching.

Copper

Metal used in electrical wiring, cookware, and various alloys.

Platinum

Rare metal used in electronics, medical devices, and catalysts.

Iron

Metal fundamental for infrastructure (steel production).

Silver

Metal used in jewelry and electronics; corrosion-resistant.

Gold

Precious metal used in jewelry, currency, and medals.

Cobalt

Metal used for alloys and magnets; important in some batteries.

Bauxite

Rock from which aluminum is extracted.

Lithium

Lightweight metal used in batteries and electronics.

Zinc

Metal used in alloys and coatings; essential in some batteries.

Potash

Mineral used as a fertilizer and chemical feedstock.

Endogenic Processes

Geologic processes originating inside Earth (volcanism, tectonics) that transport minerals.

Hydrothermal Processes

Movement of hot, mineral-rich fluids through rock, forming ore deposits.

Mining

Extraction of valuable materials (metals, coal, minerals) from Earth.

Surface Mining

Mining near the surface; generally cost-effective.

Underground Mining

Mining for deep minerals conducted below the surface.