biotech macros

Carbohydrate Structure

The arrangement of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a carbohydrate molecule, forming a chain or ring structure. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. They serve as a primary source of energy and play a role in cell structure and communication.

Types of Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides: Simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit. Disaccharides: Carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharide units joined together. Polysaccharides: Complex carbohydrates made up of multiple monosaccharide units bonded in a chain or branched structure.

Carbon Structure - Length

The number of carbon atoms in a molecule determines the length of a carbon structure.

Carbon Structure - Branching

Carbon Structure - Branching: A structural pattern in which carbon atoms form branches or side chains off the main carbon chain. It increases the complexity and diversity of organic compounds. Branching affects the physical and chemical properties of molecules, such as boiling point, solubility, and reactivity.

Carbon Structure - Double Bonds

Carbon atoms can form double bonds by sharing two pairs of electrons. Double bonds create a rigid structure and can be found in organic compounds like alkenes and carboxylic acids. They influence the reactivity and physical properties of molecules.

Carbon Structure - Rings

A carbon structure characterized by a closed loop of carbon atoms, forming a ring. Rings can vary in size and can be found in various organic compounds. They play a crucial role in the structure and reactivity of many molecules, including aromatic compounds and cyclic organic reactions.

Hydrocarbons

A long C-H chain that is connected by non-polar bonds. They separate the outside of a cell and the inside, both of which are polar.

Organic Molecules

a molecule that most likely has carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. It may also contain Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Sulfur

Carbon

It is a key building block of life, found in all organic compounds. Carbon has four valence electrons, allowing it to form stable covalent bonds with other atoms, creating a wide variety of molecules and structures. It can also form double bonds.

Isomers

Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements or spatial orientations, resulting in different chemical properties and physical characteristics. They can be classified as structural isomers, stereoisomers, or geometric isomers based on the type of differences in their arrangement.

Functional Groups

A functional group is a specific arrangement of atoms in a molecule that determines its chemical properties and reactivity. It is responsible for giving organic compounds their unique characteristics. Functional groups include hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, and phosphate groups, among others.

Hydroxyl Group

A functional group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to a hydrogen atom. It is polar and hydrophilic, meaning it attracts water molecules. It plays a crucial role in the structure and function of many organic compounds, including alcohols and carbohydrates. ( C-OH)

Carbonyl Group

Functional group consisting of a carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen atom. Commonly found in aldehydes (on the end) and ketones (in the middle). Responsible for the reactivity and characteristic properties of these compounds. It is found in ALL sugars

Carboxyl Group

Flashcard for Carboxyl Group:

Functional group found in organic compounds, consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and single-bonded to a hydroxyl group. It imparts acidity to molecules and is commonly found in carboxylic acids. It typically gives away the H+ both willingly, or unwillingly. (C=O)

Amino Groups

Functional group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two or three hydrogen atoms. Found in organic compounds, like amino acids and proteins. Gives compounds basic properties and can form hydrogen bonds. It also takes H+ causing them to be more basic (this is because of amino bases, or base pairs) (H-N-H)

Sulfhydryl Group

Functional group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom. Commonly found in amino acids and proteins. Plays a crucial role in stabilizing protein structures through the formation of disulfide bonds. Can also participate in redox reactions. (C-SH)

Phosphate Group

A molecule consisting of a central phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms. It plays a crucial role in energy transfer, as it is a key component of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and other high-energy molecules. It also contributes to the structure of DNA and RNA, serving as a backbone for nucleic acids.

How does ATP give energy

Process by which ATP provides energy for cellular activities through the release of a phosphate group, resulting in the formation of ADP and inorganic phosphate. The addition of the new phosphate makes the molecule unstable. The molecule can’t get rid of the phosphate until it completes a certain task.

Geometric Isomer

Isomers that have the same molecular formula but differ in the arrangement of atoms around a double bond or a ring. They cannot be interconverted without breaking a bond.

Structural Isomer

Different arrangement of atoms in a molecule, resulting in distinct chemical properties.

Stereoisomers

Stereoisomers are isomers that differ in spatial arrangement of atoms, rather than order of atomic connectivity.

Monomers

A single building block

Polymer

A lot of monomers that are connected

Macromolecule

Multiple polymers combined. The 4 macromolecules are Lipids, Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids.

Polymer Formations

Polymers can form and break by using Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis.

Dehydration Synthesis

2 molecules are joined together and lose an H20 ( mostly occurs between an H and a HO group)

Hydrolysis

1 moelcule is broken into 2 by adding water (H20)

Monosaccharides

-Ketoses and Aldoses

-Isomers

-Spatial Arrangment

-Form rings in water

Disaccharides

-Double Sugar joined by glycoside linkage

glycoside Link

2 molecules are joined together and lose an H20 ( mostly occurs between an H and a HO group)

Polysaccharides

-100-1000 monosaccharides

-Enzyme mediated dehydration synthesis

-Energy Storage, structural support

Starch

used for energy

-Storage in plants

-Glycosidic bonds

Glycogen

-used for energy

-large, highly branched, stored in muscle and liver

-glucose is its polymer

Cellulose

-used for structure

-linear unbranched D-glucose ( humans cant digest)

-plant cell walls

-3-d differences between cellulose and starch

Chitin

-used for structure

-Polymer of sn amino sugar

-Exoskeletons of arthropods

-cell walls of fungi

Lipids

A insoluble, nonpolar, macromolecule. It has no true monomer but is mad out of fats. They are most commonly found in phospholipid bilayers found in the cell membrane.

Proteins

-1 o more polypeptides

-central carbon with an amino group

• carboxyl group

• peptide bond formation

Primary Level

Unique amino acid sequence

Secondary level

alpha helixes, beta sheets, and hydrogen bonding starts to occur

Teritary level

hydrophobic interactions, disulfide bond

Quatenary level

overall protein shape and also functional

Denaturing

loss of the teritiary structure

Nucleic acids

information storing macromolecule

Cell DNA

All cells have the genetic information to do any function, but most of them are turned off

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid

-double stranded genetic info

-polar and negatively charged

-uses Thymine

RNA

Ribonucleic acid

-single stranded (can be clockwise or counterclockwise)

-negatively charged

-uses Uracil

Purines

-double ring structure

-Adenine

-Guanine

Pyrimidines

-Cytosine

-Thymine

-Uracil

Phosphodiester bond

-the 5’ to 3’ structure