Feminism

Define ‘feminism’

The belief in the social, economic and political quality of the sexes

Define ‘malestream’

Viewing social phenomena mainstream and usual, from the point of the man

Define ‘patriarchy’

Male dominance over women

What are the 3 waves of feminism?

• First wave → Early 1900s

• Second wave → 1960s to 1980s

• Third wave → 1990s to 2010s

First wave of feminism → Early 1900s

• Focus: Legal equality, especially the right to vote

• Context: Women were excluded from political participation

• Key campaign: Suffragette movement led by Emmeline Pankhurst, which used direct action to demand voting rights for women

• Achievements: Gained women the right to vote (In the UK, 1918 for some, 1928 for all adult women)

Second wave of feminism → 1960s to 1980s

• Slogan: “The Personal is Political” (Gloria Steinem)

• Focus: Broadened feminism beyond legal rights to include reproductive rights, workplace equality, domestic violence and sexuality

• Achievements: Greater access to contraception, abortion rights, domestic violence awareness and workplace discrimination laws

Third wave of feminism → 1990s to 2010s

• Focus: Challenged universal ideas of womanhood and pushed for diversity, inclusion and intersectionality

• Tackled media representation, sexual harassment and gender fluidity

• Included campaigns like hashtag HeForShe (men supporting gender equality) and hashtag MeToo (exposing sexual abuse and harassment

What are the 6 structures of patriarchy (Walby)?

• The state

• Violence

• Domestic labour

• Paid work

• Sexuality

• Culture

Structure of patriarchy (Walby) → The state

• Governments are predominantly male dominated

• Laws and policies often reflect and prioritise male interests

• Eg lack of maternity rights historically due to under representation of women in parliament

Structure of patriarchy (Walby) → Violence

• Patriarchy is maintained through physical and sexual violence against women

• Eg domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape as means of control

Structure of patriarchy (Walby) → Domestic labour

• Women perform the majority of unpaid domestic work and childcare

• This division of labour is seen as ‘natural’ despite lacking rational basis in modern society

Structure of patriarchy (Walby) → Paid work

• Women are overrepresented in low paid, part time and insecure jobs

• The gender pay gap persists

• Vertical segregation as there is few women in top-level positions (‘glass ceiling’)

Structure of patriarchy (Walby) → Sexuality

• Double standards exist in how male and female sexuality is perceived

• Women are shamed for sexual behaviour, which men are celebrated for (eg sluts vs players)

Structure of patriarchy (Walby) → Culture

• Media and cultural representations often objectify and sexualise women

• This reinforces their subordinate status and supports patriarchal ideas

What are the 4 general features of feminism?

• Gender inequality exists

• Inequality leads to conflict

• Gender is socially constructed

• Patriarchy is key

Gender inequality exists:

Feminism argues that society is structured in a way that privileges men and disadvantages women across multiple areas like work, family and politics

Inequality leads to conflict:

Inequalities in status and power create conflict between the sexes with can be addressed through feminist critique and activism

Gender is socially constructed:

Gender roles are not biological, but created by society through norms, expectations and socialisaiton

Patriarchy is key:

Feminists view patriarchy as a core system of oppression, shaping both public and private spheres

Liberal feminism

• Beliefs → Gender equality can be achieved through legal and political reform (eg laws for equal pay, anti discrimination)

• Approach → Work within the existing system to promote change through education, policy and representation

• Thinkers → Ann Oakley (studied gender role socialisation), Sue Sharpe (studied girls’ changing aspirations)

• Criticism → Overly optimistic, fails to tackle deep rooted structures of patriarchy. Focuses on equality of opportunity, not outcomes

Radical feminism

• Beliefs → Patriarchy is a deep rooted system of male domination in all areas of life

• Change → Requires revolutionary change, not reform. Advocates for women only spaces, sometimes political lesbianism

• Tactics → Protest, confrontation and separatism

• Thinker → Germaine Greer

• Criticism → Can be seen as extreme, dismissive of other feminist approaches, gender equality is portrayed as unattainable

Marxist feminist

• Beliefs → Womens oppression is linked to capitalism not just patriarchy

• Key arguments → 1. Reserve army of labour (women can be hired and fired as needed) 2. Reproduction of labour power (women raise and care for the next generation of workers) 3. Cushioning effect by Zaretsky (women absorb male frustration from capitalist exploitation

• Thinkers → Michèle Barrett

• Criticism → Fails to address non economic oppression (eg sexual violence). Revolution is unlikely. Patriarchy exists in non capitalist societies too

Intersectional feminism

• Beliefs → Womens oppression varies depending on race, class, sexuality, ability etc

• Critique → Earlier feminist waves focused on white, m/c women, excluding diverse voices

• Approach → Recognises multiple, overlapping identities (Crenshaw’s intersectionality)

• Thinker → Judith Butler

• Criticism → Focuses too much on specific experiences, which may dilute broader feminist aims and make collective action harder

Dual systems feminism

• Beliefs → Combines Marxist and Radical feminism

• Argues that women are oppressed by 2 systems, patriarchy and capitalism

• Suggests these systems interact to reinforce womens subordination

• Thinkers → Sylvia Walby (developed dual systems model), Heidi Hartmann

• Criticism → Some argue patriarchy is not a ‘system’ like capitalism, but more a descriptive term for various male dominanted practices

Anne Oakley

• A liberal feminist

• Studied gender role socialisation in the family

• Found that children learn gender roles through manipulation, canalisation, verbal appellation and different activities

• Believed changing socialisation and education could reduce gender inequality

Sue Sharpe

• A liberal feminist

• Researched girls’ aspirations in the 1970s and 1990s

• Found that in the 1970s, girls prioritised love and marriage, but by the 1990s, career and independence had become more important

• Showed how changing norms affect gender equality

Germaine Greer

• A radical feminist

• Argues that women are oppressed by a patriarchal system present in every aspect of life

• Advocated for separatism and political lesbianism as solutions

• Wrote “The Female Eunuch” which critiques how society suppresses female sexuality

Michèle Barrett

• A Marxist feminist

• Believe women’s oppression is rooted in capitalist exploitation

• Argued that ideology and family structures support both capitalism and patriarchy

• Women perform domestic labour and emotional work that benefits capitalism

Zaretsky

• Marxist/feminist sociologist

• Coined the ‘cushioning effect’ - women absorb the stress and frustration that male workers experience under capitalism

• Suggested the family maintains capitalism by creating a stable workforce

Judith Butler

• An intersectional feminist and queer theorist

• Criticised feminism for ignoring diverse experiences of women

• Argued that gender is performative, not fixed or natural

• Believed gender identity is constructed through repeated behaviours and norms

Heidi Hartmann

• Dual systems feminist

• Argued women are oppressed by both capitalism and patriarchy

• Stated that patriarchy and capitalism interact to reinforce each other

• Believed feminist theory must consider both economic and gender based structures