CPO2001 Concepts

Democracy

Democracy is a government system where people hold power by voting in free and fair elections. It ensures basic freedoms, equal participation, rule of law, and accountability, allowing different voices and competition among leaders and parties.

What does a democracy require?

Participation, competition, and liberty

What are challenges to democracy?

Communism, fundamentalism, populism (to an extent, but it places itself within the communist regime)

Most Common to Least Common Democratic Governances:

1. Parliamentary

2. Presidential

3. Semi-presidential

Presidential System:

A relatively rare type of legislative-executive system, whereby the singular head of state and government is directly elected by the public for a fixed term and has control over the cabinet and legislative process, thus he/she is not beholden to the legislature

Parliamentary System:

the most common legislative-executive system, made up of a prime minister (that comes out of the legislature) as head of government, a legislature that can remove the prime minister from office, and a president or monarch as a head of state

Vote of No Confidence:

In a parliamentary system, it is the method by which the legislature may remove the prime minister from office

Semi-Presidential System

The least common legislative-executive system that combines the presidential and parliamentary systems, whereby the prime minister is charged with domestic policy and the directly elected president is charged with setting broader agenda and foreign policy (essentially, president sets policy, pm executes it)

Cohabitation

Arrangement in which presidents lacking a majority in the legislature appoint an opposition prime minister who can gain majority of support in the legislature

• In a semi-presidential system, it can cause systemic gridlock/instability

Actors that influence democratization:

1. Elite Actors: The person that is in power matters

2. Society: Civil Society; democratic engagement and practice

3. International Relations: impact of foreign investment, trade, and globalization (modernization), outside influences can push democratization, civil society strengthened organizations outside the country

4. Culture: Democratic traditions and individualistic society (not modernization) are what breed democracy

Executives:

• Carry out the laws and policies

• Consists of Head of Government and Head of State

Heads of Government:

• Main role: Leads daily operations and policy implementation

• In some countries takes the form of ¨ Prime Minister¨

• Elected: By legislature

• Usually head of the largest party in legislature

• Can be removed by a vote of no confidence (AKA: Centure)

• Power can be weaker or stronger, depending on head of state

• General rule in Democracy: usually whoever elects, removes them

Head of State:

• Role: Symbolizes nation at home and abroad

• May be a president or a monarch

• Can be directly elected, elected by legislature, or hereditary (monarchy)

• Can be weak or strong depending on the existence and relative power of the head of government

Unicameral Legislature

• Legislature with a single chamber

Bicameral Legislature:

• Legislature with 2 chambers

• You can be bicameral and NOT be federal but you will NEVER see a federal system without a bicameral

• Can be symmetric or asymmetric in power. Asymmetric = One house has most power (Ex: UK´s House of Commons) Symmetric= Both houses have the same amount of power (Ex: USA)

Constitutional Courts:

• Highest judicial body in a political system that decides whether laws and policies violate the constitution

• Have different forms of judicial review: Concrete Review and Abstract Review

• Some countries only have either Abstract or Concrete while some may have both

Judicial Review:

• Court´s power to asses law constitutionality

Concrete Review:

• Judicial review AFTER law is enacted

• Open to allowing more laws to happen knowing that it can do some harm

Abstract Review:

• Judicial review BEFORE law is enacted

• Ability to rule on constitutional issues without the need of a court case

• France has abstract review

Electoral Systems:

1. Single Member Districts

2. Proportional Representation

3. Mixed System

Single Member Districts (First Past the Post)

• Votes cast for INDIVIDUALS

• Outcome: Candidate with the largest share wins seat or majority

• Effect: Fewer and larger parties

• AKA first past the post

Proportional Representation:

• Votes cast for PARTIES

• Seats divided among parties on basis of share of vote

• More smaller parties

• AKA multi-member district voting

Mixed System (Mixed Electoral System):

• PR and SMD

• Votes cast BOTH for parties and for individuals

• Some seats filled by individual races, some by party outcome

• Mixed outcome

Multimember District

One electoral district with more than one seat

Single Member District

Only one electoral seat per district

Open List Proportional Representation

Citizens vote for an INDIVIDUAL on the party list instead of for the whole party

• Weakens power of political parties

• Causes fragmented party system

Multiparty Presidentialism

Combination of presidentialism and fragmented legislature

• prone to corruption and sent-seeking

SMD with 2 round runoff with 12.5% threshold (France):

4 bloc, 2 party system (France)

Major parties on the right form a bloc against major parties on the left

Republicanism

Indirect democracy that emphasizes separation of powers within a state and the representation of the public through elected officials

Referendum

• National vote on specific legislative issues

• Public is asked to accept or reject a specific proposal or policy but its proposed by government (TOP-DOWN)

Initiative

• Citizen-driven proposal for legislation (Bottom-Up)

Civil Rights

• Promotion of Equality

• Rights promoting equality among citizens

Civil Liberties

• Promotion of freedom

• Rights ensuring individual freedoms

Social Democracies:

• Political systems that blend democratic governance with a strong commitment to social welfare and economic equality

• Ex: Healthcare, education, work, etc.

Positive Freedom:

• Rights to pursue ones own goals

Negative Freedom:

• Freedom from interference by others

Different types of non-democratic systems:

• A small group of individuals exercise power

• no constitutional responsibility to public

• Dictates to the people (dictators)

• No popular right to choose leaders

• Limit, to varying degrees, other public rights

• Ideology may or may not play a role (personalistic, military, religious)

What effect does the modernization theory have on democracy?

It theorized that as a society became more educated and economically developed, democracy would appear, but this has been largely discredited as modernization in some places has not lead to democracy, and has sometimes even lead to political violence and democratic failure

Forms of Non- Democratic Rule:

• Totalitarianism

• Authoritarianism

(military rule, absolute monarchy, theocracy, oligarchy, dictatorship, hybrid regimes)

Totalitarianism:

• System with total control over society

• Extremely rare and difficult to maintain

• Almost inevitable use of force to break people/shatter institutions (violence central)

• Political attitude= radical or reactionary

• Examples: China´s Cultural Revolution (1960s), Hitler under Nazi Germany (1930s- 1945)

Modernization & Non-Democratic Rule:

• Strong correlation between lack of modernization and nondemocratic rule (but does not equal causation)

• Can be uneven and unstable —> creating openings for strong leaders who can institute nondemocratic regimes to restore order

Elites & Non-Democratic Rule:

• Elites in highly unequal societies often reinforce non-democratic structures incentivizing elites to maintain power and resources

Resource Trap/ Resource Curse

• When a country has a national resource (like oil or minerals) and they experience less economic growth and worse development outcomes than countries with fewer resources, often due to corruption, poor governance, and reliance on volatile commodity markets

• When a country has a national resource that is really valuable and the leader of the country uses the money from the resource to enrich themselves and not the people

What International Relations lead to Non-Democratic Rule?

• War, Occupation, and Imperialism

• ^ Outcomes of this includes: poorly drawn borders, uneven modernization, weak autonomy and capacity, and international support for nondemocratic regimes

Non- Democratic Regimes and Civil Society

• Non-democratic regimes tend to have weaker civil societies

• The more authoritarian, the lower the civil society

• May be result of leaders actions to remove civic groups (cooperation) to consolidate control

Civil Society

• Individual engagement that is non-political

Surveillance

Systematic monitoring of individuals by the state, often without their consent or knowledge

Coercion

Use of force to maintain political control

Co-optation

Incorporating individuals into a regime for support

Forms of Co-Optation

Corporatism, Clientelism, and Kleptocracy

Corporatism

• Only limited stat-sanctioned organizations allowed

• Approves only one single labor union to represent all labor in the country

Clientelism

• Government bribes individuals by giving benefits/favors in exchange for political support

• (Less a method, but more of a behavior)

Rent Seeking (Form of Clientelism)

Parts of state/government domains are ¨rented out¨ to supporters

Patrimonialism (part/form of clientelism)

• Ruler depends on a collection of supporters in the state who gain direct benefits from that rule (ethnic groups, clans, religious groups etc.)

• Ruler distributes rewards to gain support

Kleptocracy

• Rule by theft

• Government exploiting resources for personal gain

• Authoritarian regime striping the state for its resources

Personality Cults

Leader´s charisma generates authority and loyalty (Ex: Hitler during Nazi Germany)

Can Non-Democratic rule be legitimate?

• Yes, there can be charismatic, traditional, and rational legitimacy (Charisma= Mao, Tradition= Monarchs, Rationality= Rule by unelected ´experts´)

Different Models of Non-Democratic Rule:

1. Personal- Rule by ONE person, resting on the idea that an individual alone is fit to rule

2. Military- rule by the armed forces of a state

3. Theocracy- a regime in which rule is based on appeals to religious and devine approval (Ex: Iran)

4. One-Party- A single political organization monopolizes politics (Ex: China through Communist Party)

5. Illiberal- rule by an elected leadership through procedures of questionable democratic legitimacy (Ex: Nigeria)

Personal and Monarchical Rule

• Claim that one person alone is fit to rule the country

• Ruler not subject of the state (but rather its protector or embodiment)

• Often justified through charismatic or traditional legitimacy (cult of personality)

Military Rule

• Military seizes control of the state (coup d´etat)

• Common in Latin America

• Relatively recent development

• Often lacks a specific ideology

• Many military non-democratic regimes transition to democracy, but not all

Coup d´etat

Military seizes control of the state

Bureaucratic Authoritarianism

• A system where the government is run by state officials/bureacracy and the military, who enforce strict, top-down control in the name of order and efficiency (technocratic leadership), instead of relying on the more flexible, people-driven decision-making process of a democracy

• Leaders argue that their rule is "rational" and based on practical needs, whereas they view democracy as potentially "emotional" or unpredictable because it involves more public input and debate.

One-Party Rule

• Single party monopolizes political power

• Leader of the Party = leader of the state (Ex: China)

• Co-optation is the primary feature of system

• Benefits given to party members in return for support

• Leadership uses the party to mobilize and spread propaganda as needed

Theocracy:

• Government ruled by religious leaders who claim to represent divine authority, with religious faith as the core of its political system (¨Rule by God¨)

• Theocratic regimes can be based on various religions and have appeared at different points in history, often pursued by fundamentalists

• Weak example of theocracy= Iran (Partial Theocratic)

Illiberal/hybrid regimes

• Weakly institutionalized regimes with democratic features.

• Can’t be categorized as free but cannot be categorized as unfree either

• Executives typically hold tremendous power (president, prime minister, monarch, etc) (executives rely on referenda)

• Democratic processes not well respected

• Media under state control

• State institutions under direct control of government (politicized)

• Often considered a ¨ Halfway house¨ - will become more democratic over time - but not necessarily

  • Can be state as democracy degrades/slips

Nondemocratic Regime

Political regime that is controlled by a small group of individuals who exercise power over the state without being constitutionally responsible to the public

State Violence

War between two states

Political Violence

Politically motivated violence by non-state actors.

• Often goal is to become new ruler of state (regime change)

• Not good for democracy/ violence is problematic for democracy

Three explanations regarding the origins/causes of political violence:

1. Institutions- Weak, corrupt, or unjust political systems can breed violence, as people may see no other way to enact change or address grievances.

2. Idea/ideational- Extreme ideologies and beliefs can justify violence as a means to achieve political or social goals.

   • some ideologies even find that there is value in violence

3. Individual- Personal motives, including psychological factors or socioeconomic hardships, can drive individuals to participate in acts of political violence.

   • people who feel oppressed and like they have nothing else to lose are more likely to be violent

Atomization

Creating Isolation among the population through fear

Forms of Political Violence:

2 core types: Revolution and Terrorism; but can take any form (ie. riots, assassinations, civil wars, etc)

Revolution

Mass uprising to fundamentally transform the regime

Possible causes of Revolution:

1. Relative Deprivation- Rapid economic progress raises public expectations, and when these go unmet, resentment builds, sparking revolutionary sentiment.

2. Institutions- States weakened by war or instability may attempt reforms that unintentionally fuel dissent.

3. Organizations- Revolutionary movements succeed when opposition groups are ideologically aligned and have international support.

Terrorism:

Small group using coercion to seek change in regime or policy

• Targets CIVILIANS to pressure government

• You cannot negotiate with terrorists, they aren’t open for negotiation

Possible causes of terrorism:

• Religious ideology/apocalyptic beliefs

• Nihilism

• Humiliation and despair: only self worth comes from a terror group (most common form of recruit to a terrorist group)

Nihilism

Belief that violence is inherently meaningful

Strategic goals of terrorists:

• Disrupting negotiated settlements to create chaos

• Preventing political and economic development

Guerilla Warfare

Targeting GOVERNMENT for regime change

Relative Deprivation Model

• Model that predicts revolution when public expectations outpace the rate of domestic change

Relative deprivation- Unmet expectations due to rapid economic growth

Elements necessary for an action to be considered terrorism:

• Carried out by non-state actors

• Has political goals

• Targets civilians

Terrorism and Legitimacy:

• Terrorists can undermine legitimacy by making governments look incompetent and highlight dissatisfaction

• Terrorists present THEIR views as legitimate

Terrorism and religious motivations:

• Religious Fundamentalism- Aims to restore and idealized, ¨pure¨ community by replacing secular law with religious law

• Response to Modernization- Rejects the instability brought by rapid social and economic changes, often through violent means

• Justification for Violence- Fundamentalist doctrine can support violence, especially where beliefs are utopian or messianic, framing opponents as threats to a "divine" order.

State response to terrorists and revolutionaries: Repression or Reform?

• Repression: May eliminate immediate threat but leads to more resentment later

• Reform: May satisfy some demands but can encourage more demands later

Advanced Democracies

Stable political institutions with wealthy economies

Common Characteristics of an advanced democracy:

• Economic development

• Freedom and equality

Economic development in advanced democracies:

• Small agricultural sectors

• Industrial sectors shrinking

• Service sectors growing

Large Variations in Freedom and Equality

• Personal Liberties: in some countries have more freedom than in other countries; Ex: Abortion permitted in Canada but restricted in Korea

• Variation in levels of Economic freedom: Prostituion permitted in New Zealand but not in USA

• Political Participation: Voting is compulsory in Australia and Brazil

Two trends that may gradually destroy advanced democracies:

1. International integration- Shifts key state functions to international organizations (Ex: WTO, NAFTA, EU, MERCOSUR, ASEAN)

2. Devolution- Transfers authority from central government to local and regional governments, creating semi-autonomous regions (e.g., in Spain and the UK) and reducing centralized control.

Post Industrial Evolution In Advanced Democracies:

• Most of the economy is engaged in services rather than the creation of tangible goods

The European Union:

• A political institution composed of European Countries (27/28) that have economic and social cooperation

• Integration has been a slow process, taking place over decades

• Origins: After WWII with a goal of preventing another European War, Functional Cooperation on Coal and Steel

Democracy Deficit of the EU

• Many see the EU as driven by bureaucrats

• It lacks many avenues of accountability to voters (they can only directly elect a small portion of decision makers)

• Single currency union has removed the ability of the individual countries to freely set their own monetary policy

EU Instituions:

• Political Executive: The European Council (members= heads of state or government)

• Bureaucratic Executive: The European Commission (members= Cabinet Ministers)

• Legislature: The Council of the EU and European Parliament (Council Members= Cabinet minister from member state governments, Role= Sets the general direction of the EU) (Parliament members= directly elected by voters, Roles= passes legislation and budget)

• Judicial: European Court of Justice (Members= High Court chosen by member states)

2 Views on EU Governance:

• Intergovernmental Cooperation: Controlled by its member states, with major decisions made through negotiation among national leaders

• Supranational Institution: The EU is governed by its own institutions, limiting national governments through EU rules and procedures, often advancing integration via crisis management

Other examples of international integration:

• World Trade Organization (WTO)- 1994, Judicial process can rule on national laws

• North American Free Trade Agreement- Trade policy set through international treaty with some environmental and labor standards

• MERCOSUR (Southern Common Market)- An economic and political agreement among Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela

Different causes for Devolution:

• Improve representation of minorities

• Bring citizens together/closer to decision making (engage citizens)

• Increase efficiency (varied results)

Integration vs. Devolution

Integration = Aggregation of powers to supranational organizations

Devolution= Transfer of power to regional or local governments

Post-Materialism:

• Concerns for social ends, after basic needs are met

• Social and political orientation that prioritizes values like self-expression, environmental protection, quality of life, and social equality over material or economic concerns

Post Material Values vs. Modern Values

• Modern values= Rationalism and industry

• Material values= Individual consumption