BME c5

chapter 5

Motivation

● A set of forces that leads people to behave in particular ways.

Job performance (P)

● depends on motivation (M), ability (A), and environment (E):

○ P = M × A × E

motivation

Want to do the job well

ability

Be able to do the job effectively

environment

Have the necessary materials, resources, equipment, and information

motivational processes

● Need: 

● Need deficiency: 

● Goal-directed behaviors

Rewards and punishments

Assessment

Need

 Anything an individual requires or wants.

Need deficiency

Triggers attempts to satisfy the need.

Goal-directed behaviors

● Result from individuals trying to satisfy need deficiencies.

Rewards and punishments

Consequences of goal-directed behavior.

Assessment

Evaluating if the outcome addressed the original need deficiency.

Early Perspectives on Motivation

Traditional approach

Human relations approach

Human resource approach

Traditional approach

Scientific management: Assumes employees are motivated by money.

Human relations approach

○ Suggests a false sense of employee inclusion in decision-making boosts motivation.

Human resource approach

○ Assumes people want to contribute and can make genuine contributions.

Task-specific self-efficacy

● A person’s belief in their capabilities to perform a specific task.

Three dimensions of self-efficacy

1. Magnitude

2. Strength

Generality

Magnitude

beliefs about how difficult a task can be to accomplish

Strength

beliefs about how confident the person is that the specific task can be accomplished

Generality

beliefs about the degree to which similar tasks can be accomplished

Need-based theory

Assumes need deficiencies cause behavior.

Hierarchy of needs

●  Assumes human needs are ranked by importance:

Basic (deficiency) needs

■ Physiological

■ Security

Belongingness

Growth needs

■ Esteem

■ Self-actualization

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

consists of five basic categories of needs.

ERG theory

1. Existence needs

2. Relatedness needs

3. Growth needs

● More than one need may motivate a person at the same time

● Includes satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression components.

Two-factor theory

Identifies motivation factors, which affect satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which determine dissatisfaction
● Motivation factors (intrinsic): Achievement, recognition, etc.

● Hygiene factors (extrinsic): Pay, job security, etc.

Herzberg’s two-factor theor

 In this theory, motivation factors affect one dimension, ranging from satisfaction to no satisfaction. Other workplace characteristics, called “hygiene factors,” are assumed to affect another dimension, ranging from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction

Motivational Factors

Achievement

Recognition

work itself

responsibility

achievement and growth

Hygiene Factors

Supervesion

Working conditions

Interpersonal relationship

pay and job security

company policies

Achievement

Desire to accomplish tasks effectively than was done in the past

Affiliation

Need for human companionship

Power

Desire to control resources in one’s environment

Process-based perspective

Focuses on how people behave in their efforts to satisfy their needs

Equity theory

- Focuses on people’s desire to be treated fairly (equity) and avoid unfair treatment (inequity).

Equity comparison process

Based on input-to-outcome ratio

perceive equity

they are motivated to maintain the current situation.

perceive inequity

they are motivated to use one or more of the strategies shown here to reduce the inequity

Expectancy theory

● Suggests people are motivated by:

○ How much they want something.

The likelihood of getting it.

Effort-to-performance expectancy

The perceived probability that effort will lead to performance

Performance-to-outcome expectancy

The perceived probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes

Outcome

Anything that results from performing a behavior

Valence

The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (value) that a particular outcome has for a person

Basic expectancy model components

Effort-to-performance expectancy

Performance-to-outcome expectancy

Outcome

Valence

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The expectancy theory is the most complex model of employee motivation in organizations. the key components of expectancy theory are effort-to-performance expectancy, performance-to-outcome instrumentality, and outcomes, each of which has an associated valence. These components interact with effort, environment, and ability to determine an individual’s performance

The Porter-Lawler Model

The Porter and Lawler expectancy model provides interesting insights into the relationships between satisfaction and performance. this model predicts that satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for performance. That is, rather than satisfaction causing performance, which many people might predict, this model argues that it is actually performance that eventually leads to satisfaction

Learning

 A relatively permanent change in behavior from direct or indirect experience.

Classical conditioning

Traditional View

● Links conditioned responses with unconditioned stimuli.

Contemporary view

Learning as an active cognitive process, which assumes people are conscious, active participants in how they learn

Reinforcement theory

● Behavior is shaped by consequences

- Also called operant conditioning (Skinner).

- People consciously explore different behaviors and systematically choose those that result in the most desirable outcomes

Social learning

● People observe, recognize consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result

- Behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively simple.

- Observed and imitated behavior must be concrete, not intellectual.

Learner must have the physical ability to imitate the observed behavior

Behavior Modification

- Applies reinforcement theory to influence the behaviors of people in organizational settings

Positive reinforcement

Reward after desired behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Avoidance of unpleasant circumstances after desired behavior.

Punishment

○  Unpleasant consequences to reduce behavior.

Extinction

Eliminating rewards to reduce behavior

Fixed-ratio

Behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors exhibited, with the number of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement held constant.

Fixed-interval

Behavior is reinforced according to some predetermined, constant schedule based on time.

Variable-ratio

Behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors exhibited, but the number of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement varies from one time to the next.

Variable-interval

Behavior is reinforced after periods of time, but the time span varies from one time to the next.

NEED-BASED THEORY OF MOTIVATION

1. Hierarchy of Needs

2. ERG Theory

3. Two Factor Theory

4 Acquired Needs Framework

PROCESSED-BASED THEORY

1. Equity Theory

2.  Expectancy Theory

3.Porter- Lawler Model

LEARNING–BASED THEORY

1. Classical Conditioning

2. Reinforcement Theory

3. Social Learning

4. Behavior Modification

● Positive reinforament

● Negative reinforament

● Punishment

Extinction

Abraham Maslow

author of Hierarchy of Needs

Clayton Alderfer

author of ERG Theory

Frederick Herzberg

author of Two Factor Theory

David McClelland

author of Acquired Needs Framework

John Stacy Adams

author of Equity Theory

Victor Vroom

author of Expectancy Theory

Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler

authors of  Porter- Lawler Model

Ivan Pavlov

author of Classical Conditioning

B.F. Skinner

author of Reinforcement Theory

Albert Bandura

author of Social Learning

B. F. Skinner

author of 1. Behavior Modification

● Positive reinforament

● Negative reinforament

● Punishment

● Extinction