Psychology 3/4 KEY TERMS AND BUZZ WORDS

Classical conditioning

• Before conditioning, during conditioning, after conditioning

• REPEATED ASSOCIATION

• UCS immediately after the NS

• the CS ALONE causes the CR

Operant conditioning

• ABC - antecedent, behaviour, consequences BEHAVIOUR AND CONSEQUENCES ARE ALWAYS DIFFERENT

• Consequences: positive/negative reinforcement/punishment. Positive involves adding stimuli, negative involves removing stimuli.

• MUST SAY increases/decreases likelihood of behaviour

Observational learning

• ARR MR:

  • Attention: pay close attention, actively watch

  • Retention: store a mental representation

  • Reproduction: have the physical and mental capacity to carry out action

  • Motivation: must have desire or motivation

  • Reinforcement: desirable consequence (needs contextualising) to increase likelihood of behaviour

Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-store Model of Memory

Encoding: converting incoming information into a form that can be stored in memory

Storage: retention of the encoded information over time

Retrieval: recovery of stored information and bringing into conscious awareness

Sensory memory: unlimited capacity, very short duration. Echoic and Iconic.

• Iconic memory (visual): lasts 0.2-0.4 seconds

• Echoic memory (auditory): lasts 3-4 seconds

Short-term memory: info attended to in sensory. 5-9 items, 18-30 seconds duration.

Long-term memory: unlimited capacity and duration

Brain regions in memory

Neocortex: Storage and retrieval

Hippocampus: consolidating

Amygdala: consolidating/encoding, significant emotional content (COACTIVATES WITH OTHER BRAIN AREAS)

Basal ganglia: formation/encoding

Cerebellum: consolidation/storage

*work together to form complete memories

use ‘then signals….’ for multiple brain areas or ‘coactivates’ when appropriate

Role of episodic and semantic memory

Autobiographical memories: semantic THEN episodic components (FOLLOW THE ORDER)

Imagined futures: projecting yourself forward in time to experience future events

*autobiographical and imagined futures MUST both be included in questions referring to creation of mental experiences

Alzheimer’s: neurodegenerative, anterograde(future)/retrograde(past), neurofibrillary tangles, amyloid plaques, low acetylcholine (neurotransmitter)

Aphantasia: inability to generate mental imagery

Mnemonics

Acronym vs Acrostic: letters in one word into sentence and first letter of each word in a sentence into another sentence

• Acronym must include ‘pronounceable word’

Method of loci: well known location, physical or mental revisit, retrieval cues

Ways of knowing

holistic and relational to country

songlines: series of short sung narratives associated with specific locations that are physically walked, or imagined, path through Country

sung narrative: narratives that encode information

Ethical concepts: (FOR THE EXPERIMENTER)

1. Beneficence: Maximising benefits and minimising the risks

2. Integrity: Commitment to searching for knowledge and honest reporting

3. Justice: No unfair burden on a particular group

4. Non-maleficence: Avoidance of causing harm

5. Respect: Consideration of the value of living things

Participants’ rights: (FOR THE PARTICIPANTS)

1. Confidentiality: Personal details/information/results are kept private.

2. Voluntary participation: Must not be forced to be involved

3. Informed consent: Told about the nature, risks and rights. Sign a permission form.

4. Withdrawal rights: Allowed to stop participating in the experiment at any time. Results removed from the study.

5. Deception: Withhold some of the information about the study, providing it does not cause distress

6. Debriefing: Provided with information about the nature, results and conclusions at the end of the study. Any damage or misconceptions must also be reversed.

Normal waking consciousness and altered state of consciousness (ASC)

Ordinary consciousness: being awake aware

ASC: different from waking consciousness, can be naturally occurring (sleep) or induced (alcohol, meditation, anaesthesia)

Biological rhythms

Set patterns of periodic physiological changes.

• Controlled by biological clocks (in almost every tissue and organ)

Circadian Rhythms:

• Cycles for 24 hours

• Is endogenous (originates within the individual)

• Allows for the ability to sync with external time cues

• Sleep-wake cycle can be shifted and aligned to new cues

Ultradian Rhythms:

• Cycles for shorter than 24 hours

• Breathing, heart rate, hormone secretion, hunger, activity levels

• Sleep (90 minute cycle)

  • NREM and REM cycles per 90 minutes

Qualitative sleep measures

video monitoring and sleep diaries

quantitative sleep measures

FOR ALL QUANTITATIVE MEASURES, MUST STATE:

Detects, amplifies and records electrical activity of…

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Detects, amplifies and records electrical activity of brain wave patterns

• This measures the frequency and amplitude of brain waves

Frequency = speed as shown by number of waves per second

Amplitude = intensity as shown by the size of peaks and troughs of waves

Electromyography (EMG)

Detects, amplifies and records electrical activity of body muscles

• This is most used to show muscle activity (movement) and muscle tone (tension)

• REM: low to no tension

• NREM: slightly more tension, decreases as NREM progresses from 1-3

Electro-oculography (EOG)

Detects, amplifies and records electrical activity of the muscles that move the eyes

• This is most commonly used to show eye movements or eye positions

• Used for distinctions between REM and NREM sleep

• High activity in REM, low activity in NREM

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

The SCN is an area of the hypothalamus that is the master of the biological clocks. It role is to:

• Regulate timing and activity of circadian sleep-wake cycle

• Response to light (location above optic nerves) to control production of melatonin

• Sends neuronal messages to the pineal gland (gland that secretes melatonin)

• Increase body temperature and release cortisol to promote alertness and arousal during the day

Melatonin

Melatonin is the hormone responsible for sleep initiation and regulation of sleep-wake cycles

• It is produced by the pineal glands and released into the bloodstream

• Higher amount of melatonin in blood is associated with greater drowsiness

• Facilitates transition into sleep and promotes consistent, quality rest

• Affected by artificial light

• Can be taken as medication (for people who lose sight)

NREM 1

Lowered level of bodily arousal (decreased heart rate, breathing, muscle tension, temperature, slow rolling eye movements)

• Hypnic jerks (involuntary muscle twitches - not explicit in SD)

• Low arousal threshold (easily woken)

NREM 2

Light sleep to moderate sleep

• Continued decrease in arousal (however eye movements stop)

• Unlikely wakening to external stimuli in later stage of N2 sleep

NREM 3

Deep sleep

• Lowest levels of heart rate and breathing

• Highest arousal threshold (hardest to waken)

• 'Mental lag' if woken

REM

Spontaneous bursts of rapid eye movement

• Similar brain activity to alert wakefulness

• Paradoxical sleep (brain active however body appears to be inactive )

• Dreaming occurs vividly (more narrative and abstract)

• Last longer towards end of sleep (dreaming when woken by alarm)

• MORE TIME IS SPENT IN REM THE LONGER YOU SLEEP

Newborn/infant (birth-2 years)

• Highest Sleep duration of entire lifespan (approx. 16 hours)

• Irregular sleep duration until 2-3 months (circadian rhythms start)

• Approx. 50% REM and 50% NREM

• Support brain development

• Sleep onset can occur through REM Sleep

Children (2-14)

• 11 hours

• Decrease of REM to approx. 20% and Increase of NREM to approx. 80%

• There are variations; 2yos being likely to sleep 12hrs with 25% REM and decreasing until 14yo, with them likely to sleep 10 hours with 18.5% REM

• Greater percentage spent in stage 3 sleep

• Can skip first REM sleep period

Adolescence (14-18)

• approx. 8.5hrs

• approx. 20% REM and 80% NREM

• Decreased stage 3 sleep, increased stage 2

• Timing of sleep is changed (delayed release of melatonin)

Adulthood (18-64)

• approx. 8 hours

• 20% REM and 80% NREM

• Continued decrease in stage 3 sleep

Old age (64+)

• approx. 5.75hrs

• approx. 20% REM and 80% NREM

• 'shallow sleep' and more awakenings

• Sleepy earlier and waking up earlier

Sleep deprivation

State caused by inadequate quantity (how long slept) and/or quality (how rested, REM/NREM) of sleep

Total sleep deprivation (24 hours)

• Involves not having any sleep at all over a short-term or long-term

Partial sleep deprivation (17 hours)

• Involves having less sleep (either quantity or quality) than what is normally required

• Can occur periodically or persistently over a short-term or long-term

• Effects tend to be minor and temporary

• Accumulation of sleep debt (hours does not need to be fully repaid)

Comparing effects of one night of full sleep deprivation

• 17 hours of full sleep deprivation = Blood-alcohol concentration (BAC) reading of 0.05%

• 24 hours of full sleep deprivation = Blood-alcohol concentration (BAC) reading of 0.10%

Affective functioning effects

Interferes with emotional regulation and reactivity (more likely with REM deprivation)

• Amplified emotional responses

• Harder to accurately judge others emotions and reactions (facial recognition)

• Reduced emotional empathy

• Easily irritated, frustrated and aggressive (harder to control impulses)

Behavioural functioning effects

Microsleep (sleep episode that lasts for a few seconds)

• Sleep inertia (temporary period of reduced alertness and performance impairment that occurs immediately after awakening)

• Slower reaction times

• Excessive sleepiness when awake

• Fatigue and drowsiness

• Difficulty in maintaining focus and concentration

• Risk-taking behaviour

cognitive functioning effects

Worser performance on repetitive or simple tasks

• Impaired cognitive functioning

• Reduced ability to divide attention

• Reduced ability to think clearly

• Likely to think irrationally

• Difficulties in decision making and creative thinking

• Processing information impaired (memory and learning)

• Overlook details

Circadian rhythm sleep disorders

Sleep disorders involving sleep disturbance that is primarily due to the mismatch between an individuals sleep-wake pattern and the pattern that is desired. This may be due to:

• Natural malfunctions in biological mechanisms (e.g. dsps, aspd)

• External environment (e.g. light)

• Social schedule (e.g. clubbing)

Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome/disorder (DSPS)

DSPS is when the major sleep episode is delayed in relation to desired/conventional time

• Related to sleep-onset insomnia

• Difficulties wakening, excessive sleepiness in the day

• Mismatches with time cues in environment (e.g. dark outside but not tired)

• Worsens in adolescence and early adulthood

• Pushes sleep BACK (sleep later)

Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder (ASPD)

ASPD is a persistent disturbance due to timing of the major sleep episode occurring earlier than desired

• Rare disorder, more common in the elderly

• Early morning insomnia (struggle to stay awake and go back to sleep)

• Persistent sleep deprivation and daytime sleepiness

• May be due to deterioration in biological clock

• Pushes sleep FORWARD (sleep early)

*Melatonin levels steadily decrease as you age due to the natural wear and tear of the biological clock and changes within the brain. One change is pineal gland calcification: the pineal gland accumulates calcium over time, reducing its functionality.

Shift Work Disorder

Results from work shifts in regular sleeping times.

• Causes insomnia and excessive sleepiness during work

• Reduction in total sleep time

• Rotating shifts = higher frequency of sleep disturbance than fixed shifts

• Moving shift forward is better than backwards (sleeping earlier is better than later, due to optimal sleeping times)

Bright Light Therapy (Phototherapy)

Bright light therapy is a timed exposure of the eyes to intense but safe amounts of light

Three important variables for answering questions:

1. The right time of day (The peak time: how close individual is exposed to light to optimal time; determined by the core body temperature) (DSPS: early morning, ASPD: early evening)

2. The right intensity of light (intense but safe)

3. The right amount of time (45 minutes)

Sleep Hygiene

Sleep hygiene describes sleep habits. These are behavioural and environmental factors that affect sleep.

Zeitgebers

Zeitgebers are environmental time cues that are used by the SCN/biological clock to adjust circadian rhythms so that they are synchronised/aligned with the 24 hour day-night cycle of our external environment. Zeitgebers include:

• Daylight/sunlight

• Blue light

• Temperature

• Eating and drinking patterns

10 Good Sleep Hygiene Practices

1. Establish a regular relaxing sleep schedule and bedtime routine

2. Associate your bed and bedroom with sleep

3. Avoid activities that are stimulating in the hour before bed

4. When you cannot sleep get up

5. Avoid napping during the normal waking period

6. Avoid stimulants such as caffeine, nicotine and alcohol close to bedtime

7. Exercise can promote good sleep

8. Food can be disruptive just before sleep

9. Improve your sleeping environment

10. Ensure adequate exposure to natural light