AP Psych Unit 1

Biological Approach

Behavior explained by brain, genes, hormones, neurotransmitters. Ex: depression from low serotonin.

Humanistic Approach

Emphasizes free will, self-actualization, growth. Ex: depression from not reaching potential.

Behavioral Approach

Focus on observable, learned behaviors (conditioning). Ex: tantrums reinforced by attention

Psychodynamic Approach

Behavior from unconscious drives, childhood conflicts. Ex: anger from repressed childhood trauma.

Cognitive Approach

Behavior explained by thought patterns, memory, problem-solving. Ex: anxiety from negative thinking.

Sociocultural Approach

Behavior shaped by culture, society, environment. Ex: eating disorders in Western societies.

Evolutionary Approach

Behavior explained by natural selection and adaptation. Ex: fear of snakes helped survival.

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate on whether biology (nature) or environment/experience (nurture) shapes behavior.

Stability vs. Change

Debate on whether traits remain consistent or change over time.

Psychologist

Studies behavior/mental processes, cannot prescribe meds (usually).

Psychiatrist

Medical doctor, can prescribe meds, treats mental disorders.

I/O Psychologist

Applies psychology to workplace (hiring, productivity, morale).

Cultural Norms

Shared expectations/rules in a group. Ex: smiling differences across cultures.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to search for info that confirms beliefs. Ex: only reading articles that agree with you.

Hindsight Bias

“I knew it all along” — thinking an outcome was obvious after it happens.

Overconfidence

Thinking you know more than you do. Ex: overestimating test answers.

Informed Consent

Participants must know what they’re agreeing to and give permission.

Informed Assent

Children/minors must agree in addition to parental consent.

Confidentiality

Participants’ data must remain private.

Protect from Harm

Research cannot cause lasting physical/psychological harm.

Debriefing

Participants must be told purpose/results after study.

Deception

Allowed only if necessary, minimal harm, and debriefed afterward.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee that reviews/approves all psychological research studies.

What is an experiment?

Manipulating variables to determine cause & effect relationships

Case study

In depth investigation of something unusual

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in the natural environment without interference

Correlation

Shows relationships between variable without manipulating them

Meta-Analysis

Take different studies and combine them statistically (ex: pooling data from 20 clinical trials to see if a new therapy consistently reduces anxiety.)

Hypothesis

-Testable prediction of outcome

-Can be used with any method

Falsifable

Hypothesis can be proven wrong through experimentation or observation

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured or affected in an experiment as a response to changes in the independent variable

Operational definition

Specific description of how to measure variables in study (ex: defining “stress” as the score on a 10-question stress survey, rather than just saying “feeling stressed.”)

CV - Confounding Variable

An extra factor that could influence results unintentionally (ex: testing if exercise improves mood, but participants who exercise also sleep more—sleep could be the confounding variable.)

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm results.

Convenience Sample

A sample taken from a group that is easily accessible to the researcher, rather than a representative or random selection (ex: first 50 people to enter store)

Random Sample

A sample where every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen (ex: assigning numbers to all students in a school and using a random number generator to pick participants)

Random Assignment

Randomly placing participants into experimental or control groups to reduce bias.

Experimental Group

The group that receives the treatment or independent variable.

Control Group

The group that does not receive the treatment; used for comparison with the experimental group.

Generalizability

How well study results apply to the larger population beyond the sample.

Sampling Bias

Some members of a population are more likely to be selected than others (ex: studying teen sleep patterns but only surveying honors students, who may have different schedules than average teens)

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher unintentionally influences study results (ex: a researcher smiles more at participants in the experimental group, encouraging better performance)

Subject bias

When participants change their behavior because they know they are being studied (ex: student eats healthier during a nutrition study just to look good, not because they normally would)

Single blind experiment

Either researcher or participant doesn’t know if they’re in experiment or control group (ex: in a drug trial, participants don’t know if they’re receiving the real medication or a placebo, but researchers do)

Double blind experiment

Both researcher and participants are unaware of group assignments (ex: in a drug trial, neither the participants nor the researchers know who receives the active drug versus the placebo, reducing bias in results)

Placebo

A fake treatment with no active effect, given to control group participants.

Placebo effect

When a participant’s symptoms improve because they believe they received treatment, not because of the treatment itself.

Social desirability bias

When participants answer in ways they think will be viewed favorably rather than truthfully (ex: on a survey about exercise, someone exaggerates how often they work out to seem healthier)

Qualitative

Descriptive, non-numerical data (ex: interviews, observations)

Quantitative

Numerical, measurable data (ex: test scores, reaction times)

Field research

Research conducted in a natural, real-world setting rather than a lab (observing children’s play behavior on a school playground)

Secondary research

Using existing data collected by others to answer a new research question (ex: analyzing government health surveys to study smoking trends)

Survey method

A research method that collects self-reported data from participants through questionnaires or interviews (ex: asking students how many hours they sleep each night using a Google Form)

What does correlation research tell us

Shows the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables (ex: finding that higher study time is associated with higher test scores (positive correlation))

Issues with correlational research: appropriate representative sample

How much your sample represents the larger population (ex: only surveying honors students may not reflect all high schoolers)

Issues with correlational research: wording effect

When the phrasing of a question influences participants’ responses (ex: asking “Do you support helping the poor?” vs. “Do you support welfare?” can lead to different answers)

Issues with correlational research: self-report bias

When participants give inaccurate or misleading answers about themselves (someone underreports how much junk food they eat to seem healthier)

Issues with correlational research: directionality problem

Uncertainty about which variable influences the other (ex: does stress cause poor sleep, or does poor sleep cause stress?)