AP Psychology Unit 2

Forgetting

Failure to recall an experience when attempting to do so or failure to perform an action previously learned

Forgetting Curve

Found by Hermann Ebbinghaus; Exponential loss of information shortly after learning it

Encoding Failure

occurs when a memory was never formed in the first place

Proactive Interference

When older memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories.

Example: Writing the wrong year in January because your used to writing the previous one.

Retroactive Interference

When newer memories interfere with the retrieval of older memories.

Inadequate Retrieval

The failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded. Lack of sufficient reminders

Example: You recognize your doctor in the doctors office, but not at the grocery store

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

The feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable

Repression

The brain blocking out traumatic memories

Misinformation Effect

A phenomenon where misleading information presented after an event alters a persons memory of that event.

Source Amnesia

The inability to remember the source of a memory while retaining its substance.

Constructive Memory

memory that utilizes knowledge and expectations to fill in the missing details in retrieved memory traces. Approach to understanding memory as a cognitive process and the errors that occur within it.

imagination Inflation

a memory distortion where the act of vividly imagining an event that never happened makes a person more confident that it actually occurred

Explicit Memory

Information you can consciously recall and explain to someone else

Episodic Memory

Memories of personal experiences or specific events

Semantic Memory

Memories of facts, concepts, and general knowledge

Implicit Memory

Memories that are unconscious and harder to verbalize

Procedural Memory

Memories that help us remember how to perform skills and routines

Prospective Memory

remembering to do things in the future

Long-term Potentiation

Repeated activation of certain neural pathways makes those connections stronger over time.

Working Memory Model

An explanation of the memory used when working on a task. The brains primary system for holding and processing information while we use it.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

holds visual and spatial information

Phonological Loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

Central Executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

Episodic Buffer

a storage component of working memory that combines the images and sounds from the other two components into one meaningful piece.

Multi-store Model

Explanation of memory that sees information flowing through a series of storage systems

Sensory Memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Iconic Memory

visual sensory memory

Echoic Memory

auditory sensory memory

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Levels of Processing Model

Shallow Processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance

Structural

Encoding physical qualities

Phonemic

Encoding Sound

Deep Processing

Occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory so it can be stored and retrieved later on

Mnemonic Device

Connecting new information to something familiar

Chunking

When information is organized into groups or categories to help reduce the load on your working memory

Spacing Effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Massed Practice

cramming the memorization of information or the learning of skills into one session

Distributed Practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

Memory Consolidation

Process where our brains convert short-term memory into long-term memory

Serial Position Effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Storage

The creation of a permanent record of the encoded information.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Straight repeating of information in order to memorize it. Prolongs its presence in short term memory

Elaborative Rehearsal

Involves connecting new information to what you already know. Creates a memorable association between the new information and something you already know.

Autobiographical Memory

the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory

Autobiographical memory capacity possessed by some people who can remember personal experiences that occurred very early in their lives

Anterograde Amnesia

an inability to form new memories after an amnesia-inducing event

Retrograde Amnesia

an inability to retrieve information that happened before an amnesia-inducing event

Alzheimer's Disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

Retrieval

The calling back of stored information on demand when it's needed

Recall

Being able to access the information without being cued

-Fill in the blank questions without word banks

-Free response questions

Recognition

Identifying information after experiencing it again

-Multiple choice tests

Context Effect

the tendency to recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the information

-Ex: Returning to the home you grew up in and remembering events that occurred there

State-Dependent Memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

-Ex: If you are caffeinated while learning the information, you will be able to recall it better if you are also caffeinated then.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Memories that are more easily recalled with a persons current mood

-Ex: More likely to recall memories made while you are upset when you're in an upset mood

Retrieval Practice

the strategy of recalling facts, concepts, or events from memory in order to enhance learning. The act of retrieving something from your memory actually strengthens the connections holding it there. (Long-term potentiation)

Testing Effect

The finding that long-term memory is increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information through testing with proper feedback.

Metacognition

"Thinking about thinking" or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task.

Flashbulb Memory

A very clear and detailed memory of a moment when a shocking, significant, or emotionally charged event occurred

Intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Theory of General Intelligence

Intelligence is based on one general factor

-Example: The SAT defines how smart you are

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Gardner's intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence

Psychometric Principles

Fundamental features that an assessment must meet to be considered as high quality: reliability, validity, standardization and socio-cultural responsiveness

Standardization

1. Establishes test-norms from the test results of the larger sample.

-The SAT has the same amount of questions no matter whose taking it.

2.Ensures that the test is both administered and scored uniformly.

Test Reliability

the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people

Test Validity

Degree to which a test measures what it claims.

Test-Retest

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions

Split Half

A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.

Construct Validity

Test measures all aspects of what it is designed to measure

Predictive Validity

test accurately forecasts performance on a future measure

Stereotype Threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

-Someone in a lower socio-economic status has more pressure to preform well on the SAT than someone who has the resources to retake it multiple time.

Stereotype Lift

an increase in a group's test performance due to not being part of a negative stereotype

Flynn Effect

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations. This is due to better nutrition early in life, access to better health care, advances in technology, and more.

Aptitude

Measures an individuals natural ability and potential to learn specific skills.

-Logical Reasoning tests ( being asked to find the next shape in a sequence )

Achievement

Measures an individuals knowledge in a specific subject, based on what you have just learned

-Unit 2 AP Psych Test

Growth Mindset

Intelligence is malleable due to experiences; skills are grown over time

Fixed Mindset

Intelligence is fixed from birth; skills are constant over time