ALL questions - exam 2

What is 1 muscle that is present on the dorsal aspect of the thorax/neck of horses but not in cattle?

Rhomboideus muscle

Levator anguli oculi muscle

raises inner eyebrow

Orbicularis oculis muscle

closes eye

Retractor bulbi muscle

force third eyelid across surface of cornea

Dorsal rectus muscle

elevates eyeball

Ventral rectus muscle

depresses eyeball

Lateral rectus muscle

abduction of eyeball

Medial rectus muscle

adduction of eyeball

Dorsal oblique muscle

inward rotation of the eyeball

Ventral oblique muscle

outward rotation of the eyeball

In bovine species, this dorsal bone of the skull is incredibly large compared to dogs and horses. What is it?

frontal bone

For all species, what is the function of internal and external abdominal oblique muscles?

stabilize and support body wall

What ligament is continuous from the skull to the sacrum in cows but not in horses?

supraspinous ligament

Which species has the smallest malaris muscle of the species discussed?

equine

Which species has an almost completely flat profile of the zygomatic bone compared to the other species?

equine

Which of these muscles does NOT flex the elbow?

deltoid muscle 

What is one structure within the horse skull that is extremely large in comparison to the other species discussed?

sinuses

Which of these is a lower hindlimb muscle in horses that you don't see in other species?

soleus muscle

Which of these hindlimbs muscles is in a different orientation in horses and cows compared to dogs?

Which skull bone on the cow is just ventral to the horns, while in other species it is on the dorsocaudal aspect of the skull?

parietal bone

What is the purpose of the quadratus muscle?

extend hip

The cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and pons are all part of the

hindbrain

What is the function of the olivary nuclear complex in the medulla oblongata?

helps with regulation of motor feedback

What part of the brain is responsible in controlling balance and postural activities?

cerebellum

What parts of the diencephalon are related to hormone homeostasis and production?

hypothalamus

pineal gland

hypophysis

In the _____ horn of the spinal cord, afferent information is transmitted. In the _____ horn, efferent information is transmitted.

dorsal

ventral

What is the connective tissue that wraps around the fascicles in nerve fibers?

perineurium

What nerve fiber classification is associated with chronic/persistent pain?

C fibers

Which branches off of the cranial nerves supplies the lacrimal glands? (These will be the nerves off of multiple different CN)

greater petrosal nerve

lacrimal nerve

Which cranial nerve controls most of the muscles of the eye?

oculomotor

Which cranial nerve has a motor and sensory nuclei?

trigeminal

What classification of neuron is associated with sensory organs?

bipolar

As the action potential comes to an end, there are 2 types of refractory periods. There is the ______ refractory period in which no matter the strength of the stimuli, another action potential can't be done. Then there is the _______ refractory period, where a strong enough stimuli could start another action potential even if the neuron has not gone back to resting potential.

absolute

relative

Astrocytes are part of the blood brain barrier. They use ______ to cover capillaries and limit movement of molecules into the CNS tissues.

perivascular endfeet

What is the function of CNIV?

innervation to dorsal oblique muscle of eye 

Which of these are part of the meninges?

dura mater

pia mater

arachnoid mater

Control of balance, motor planning, and postural and locomotor activities

cerebellum

CNS tissue that extends to farthest caudal aspect of animal; brings and send neural impulses between CNS and PNS tissues

spinal cord

Helps control vital processes like your heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure, and nerve signal conduction

medulla oblongata

Handles unconscious processes, such sleep-wake cycle and breathing

pons

Protects from trauma and to help form central canal

4th ventricle

Integration center for visual and auditory pathways, and somatic reflexes initiated by visual input

tectum

Motor center that relays inhibitory signals to thalamus and basal nuclei to prevent unwanted body movement

tegmentum

Produce, secrete and convey CSF

3rd ventricle

Has nuclei that receive info from most afferent systems and provide relays on feedback control systems of motor pathways

thalamus

Involved in visceral nervous system and hormonal/homeostatic regulation

hypothalamus

Origination of CN2 that also relays sensory info from eyes to occipital lobe

optic chiasm

Important for memory

mamillary body

Regulates growth, metabolism, and reproduction through the hormones that it produces

hypophysis

Simple canal joining much larger cavities of 3rd and 4th ventricles

mesencephalic aqueduct

Important in sexual development and behavior; produces melatonin

pineal gland 

Important functions in relation to emotion, motivation, and reward

habenular nuclei

Explain the process of action potential propagation as highlighted in the diagram.

ADD FROM ASSIGNMENT 6

Which of these are inhibitory NT?

GABA 

Glycine

Describe the process of sympathetic beta adrenergic activation.

(1) First, NE or E binds to beta-adrenergic receptor

(2) This binding activates Gs protein

(3) Activated protein dissociates alpha-s subunit from beta-y subunits

(4) This leads to dissociation that causes adenylyl cyclase activation

(5) Which increases intracellular cAMP

(6) Which this increase causes activation of protein kinase A

(7) PKA increases Ca2+ uptake by internal stores

(8) This causes myosin light chain kinase to inactivate

(9) Finally, smooth muscle is relaxed

Explain the process of action potential propagation as highlighted in the diagram.

(1) First, the signal has to propagate down to the presynaptic axon terminal

(2) Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open and Ca2+ floods into cell

(3) This starts a cascade that leads to release of NT into synaptic cleft via exocytosis

(4) NT binds to ligand-gated Na+ channels

(5) The Na+ influx from ligand-gated channels causes a graded potential on the postsynaptic neural membrane

(6) Then another graded potential reaches threshold due to axon hillock summation

(7) This causes voltage-gated Na+ to open and the cell to depolarize

(8) As AP travels down the axon, voltage-gated K+ channels begin to open

(9) This is happening at the same time that voltage-gated Na+ channels are closing

(10) Once depolarization has peaked, all voltage-gated Na+ channels are now closed and voltage-gated K+ are all open

(11) This causes the repolarization of the cell

(12) Once cell reaches threshold again, voltage-gated K+ channels begin to close and K+ outflow slows down

(13) K+ leak channels are left open as well as some voltage-gated K+ channels

(14) These remaining open channels cause hyperpolarization of the cell

(15) All gated channels eventually close and cell returns to resting potential

Which of these is NOT a unique feature of neuromuscular junctions compared to neural-neural junctions?

Neuromuscular junctions use multiple different types of NT

Describe process of sensory receptor transduction.

(1) Stimulus reaches receptor

(2) Stimulation causes receptor potential on axonal surface

(3) This increases permeability to Na+

(4) Na+ influx creates a larger depolarization

(5) Receptor potential is then built up in axon hillock to create action, and it is propagated

What does it mean if a receptor is in the phasic category?

It will fire quickly, but then die off as long as the stimulus is persistent

There are 2 terminal portions of intrafusal fibers. There is the ______ type which is activated by brief stretching of intrafusal muscle fibers, detecting muscle length, and rate of change. The other is the ______ type which responds to sustained stretch of muscle, detecting muscle length, and tension.

primary

secondary

What is the relationship between intensity of sensation and strength of stimuli?

The stronger the intensity, the stronger the stimuli to the receptors

Describe the process of sympathetic alpha-adrenergic receptor activation.

(1) NE or E binds to alpha-adrenergic receptor

(2) Binding activates Gi protein

(3) Activated protein dissociates alpha-i and beta-y subunits

(4) Alpha-i inhibits adenylyl cyclase activation

(5) Decreases intracellular cAMP

(6) Finally, contraction of smooth muscle

What is meant by rapid or slow adapting receptors?

Rapid adaptation means they have a strong initial response but tapers off. Slow adaptation provides a steady response to a stimuli

What second messenger is increased or decreased intracellularly depending on if it is a beta or alpha adrenergic receptor?

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

Parasympathetic nervous system uses cholinergic receptors. nAChRs are found on presynaptic ganglia neurons while mAChRs are found on postganglionic neurons

true

The viscerosensory processes are necessary for respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and micturition.

true

There are 2 categories of sensory transduction. There is the ______ category where they fire as they 1st receive stimulus but stop if magnitude stays unchanged. The second is the ______ category where they continue to fire AP for duration of stimulation.

phasic

tonic

Ion channels connect cytoplasm of presynaptic and postsynaptic cells at a gap junction

electrical synapse

Has a synaptic cleft between presynaptic and postsynaptic membrane where NT are released

chemical synapse

A specific enzyme that changes the structure of NT so it is not recognized by its receptor

enzymatic inactivation

NT drifts away, out of synaptic cleft where it can no longer act on a receptor

diffusion

Binding site for NT is part of ion channel and NT binding results in conformational change that leads to it to open

directly gated ionic channels

Ligand-gated ion receptors that are found on directly gated ion channels

ionotropic channels

Channels that are separated from NT receptors

indirectly gated channels

Ligand-gated ion receptors found on indirectly gated ion channels

metabotropic receptors

Cholinergic receptors present in skeletal muscle and CNS and ANS; only excitatory

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs)

Cholinergic receptors present in CNS and parasympathetic of ANS; can be excitatory or inhibitory

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs)

Signals originate from cutaneous areas, muscles, and joints

somatosensory

Signals originate from internal structures of body

viscerosensory

Receptors with no special modifications

free nerve endings

Slow adapting receptor that senses touch and pressure

Merkel’s corpuscle

Senses pain

nociceptors

Senses changes in temperature

thermoreceptors 

Detect pressure and respond to mechanical deformation of surrounding tissue

mechanoreceptors

Rapidly adapting receptors sensitive to touch and vibration

Meissner’s corpuscles

Rapidly adapting receptors sensitive to pressure and vibration

Pacinian corpuscles

Slow adapting receptors sensitive to magnitude and direction of stretch of skin

Ruffini’s corpuscles

Some specialized receptors within tendon that are essential for awareness of kinesthesia

Golgi-tendon organs

Specialized stretch receptors and proprioceptors distributed throughout skeletal muscle

Muscle spindles

Receptors that sense position and movement in body

Proprioceptors

Respond to innocuous stimuli

Physiologic receptors

Which ion is more permeable through the lipid bilayer, and so has more passive transport channels than other ions?

K+

Na+/K+-ATPase pumps are always active. Their job is to rebalance the electrolytes so that a new action potential can be performed.

true

Which of these methods of NT removal involves breaking down of the NT?

enzymatic inactivation

Why is myelin important in propagation?

It reduces loss of current as the AP travels and reduces the diameter of the axon needed to keep the same conduction velocity

The ______ of stimulation is signaled by firing rates of receptor and the ______ of stimulation is signaled by time course of firing.

intensity

duration

Which of the cholinergic receptors has multiple subtypes, which allows it to be excitatory or inhibitory depending on that subtype?

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors

Which of these is included in somatosensory processing?

temp

touch

pain

proprioception

What does the basement membrane of sarcolemma contain?

acetylcholinesterase

Which of the corpuscles senses pressure?

merkel’s corpuscle

pacinian corpuscle