Studied by 2 people
Physiological and Psychological Explanations for Crime and Deviance:
What’s the Physiological Explanation?
-Distinguishing offenders and non-offenders.
-Comparing samples of offenders with non-offenders they hoped to identify what made criminals different.
-Late 19th century (Lombroso) built a picture of a typical criminal based on physical characteristics.
-Model of an atavistic, enormous jaws, huge eye sockets and other inherited features that can be found in criminals.
-Thought to be a ‘criminal gene’ but in 1960’s inmates for criminally insane were found to have an extra ‘y’ chromosome in genetic makeup.
-But later proven to be problematic as not all studied were found to have the chromosome and some non offenders had it.
What’s the Psychological Explanation?
-(Hans Eysenck) developed a more psychological approach.
-Argued ‘Delinquents’ he studies tended to have high levels of extroversion.
-However, although this characteristic is present in a person it didn’t necessarily mean they would become criminal.
-He suggested it depended on environmental as well as inherited factors.
-Some studies attempted t investigate the extent to which behaviour is inherited or caused by the environment (nature vs nurture).
-(E.G.) twins separated at birth have been studied to see the extent to which their characteristics differ.
Functionalist Theories of Crime:
The inevitability of crime (Durkheim)
-(Durkheim)
-Not everyone effectively socialised into shared norms and values.
-In complex modern societies there is a diversity of lifestyles.
-Different groups develop their own subcultures with their own distinctive norms> what’s normal to them is deviant to others.
The positive functions of crime: (Boundary maintenance)
-Purpose of punishment is to reaffirm societies shared rules and reinforce social solidarity.
-May be done through rituals of the courtroom-dramatisies wrong doing-publicity shame.
-(Cohen) Importance of media ‘dramatisation of evil’-discouraging.
The positive functions of crime: (Adaptation and change)
-Individuals with new values and living styles must not be stifled by social control- some cope for them to challenge but it will appear as deviant.
-If new ideas are supressed society will be stagnant.
-Too much crime> threatens bonds of society.
-Too little crime> society is controlling members too much which stifles individual freedom.
Other theorists (Davis, Polsky, Cohen, Erikson)
-(Davis) Prostitution acts as a safety value for the release of men’s sexual frustrations without threatening the monogamous nuclear family.
-(Polsky) Pornography safely ‘channels’ a variety of sexual desires away from adultery (which poses threat to family).
-(Cohen) A warning that institutions aren’t functioning (E.G.) Truancy at school.
-(Erikson) Function of agencies (police) is to sustain certain level of crime not get rid of it completely.
Criticisms of Functionalist theories of crime
-(Durkheim) Doesn’t state what ‘right’ amount of crime is.
-Functionalists> Ignore how it affects individuals or small group (E.G.) murderer punished- reinforces social solidarity.
-Crime doesnt always promote solidarity- can make people feel more isolated> women stay inside- as a fear of being attacked.
-Functionalism:
The inevitability of Crime Consolidation
P= Social regulation
E= Can perform a boundary setting function- reminding the law, pursuit, trial + punishment of criminals reassure people that society is functioning effectively.
E= Davies> prostitution provides economic support for unskilled women
E= Deviance is a warning signal that something in society is not properly working.
P= Social integration
E= Some crimes create public outrage which reinforce social solidarity + community values against offenders, argued it only becomes dysfunctional when its rate is unusually high or low.
E= London Riots, when particularly horrific crimes have been committed the whole community joins together in outrage.
E= Taking official crime statistics at face value
P= Social change
E= Every time a person is prosecuted for a crime attention is drawn to that act. When the law is clearly out of step with the feelings + values of the majority, legal reform is necessary.
E= Sufragette movement
E= Assume that society has universal norms + values.
Merton’s Strain theory:
Origins and key ideas
-People engage in deviant behaviour when they are unable to achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means.
-Deviance is a strain between> goals that culture encourages/what institutional structure of society allows them to achieve legitimately.
The American Dream
-Promote: self-discipline, study, qualifications and hard work in a career.
-American Dream: reminder that their society is meritocratic.
-Reality is different: Many disadvantaged groups not given opportunity to achieve legitimately (E.G.) job market can block ethnic minorities.
-Pressure of goal of money success=crime.
-(Merton) Emphasis on achieving at any means winning the game becomes more important than the rules.
Deviant adaptations to strain
-(Merton) Patterns of deviance>5 different types of adaptation.
-Conformity: strive to achieve legitimate goals (mostly m/c)
-Innovation: accept goal and do it through illegitimate means.
-Ritualism: give up on goals, internalised legitimate means and follow rules.
-Retreatism: reflect goals and legitimately.
-Rebellion: replace societies goals and means.
Merton’s Strain Theory Evaluation
-(Merton)
-Most crime is property crime- America and material wealth.
-L/C high crime rates- least opportunity.
However,
-Takes official stats at face value- over present w/c crime.
-Deterministic- working class experience strain- don't all deviate individually.
-Marxist ignores power of the ruling.
Functionalism:
Structural Functionalism Consolidation
P= Bonds of attachment
E= Hirschi> crime is a result of poor/ a lack of socialisation into societies shared norms + values. Criminal activity occurs when an individual’s attachment to society is weakened.
E= Negative experience of discrimination, working-class students due to labelling- struggle to find a job, so turn to crime.
E= Blames the victim, ignores wider societal factors e.g. poverty, middle class commit crimes as well.
P= Strain theory
E= Merton> ‘if we work hard we will be rewarded with status + material health’. The problem is there are insufficient opportunities for all those who work hard to achieve, this is therefore a strain between what we think we should have + our ability to achieve this legitimately. Striving to achieve the ‘American dream’ could lead to criminal or deviant behaviours.
E= Retreatism> lack the means of achieving society’s goals but also don’t accept the goals.
Rebellion> people who reject the dominant social goals + the means the achieve them e.g. terrorist
E= Marxist> Ignores the powers of ruling class who enforce laws in a way that criminalise the poor but not the rich.
Subcultural Strain Theories:
(Cohen) status frustration and the alternative status hierarchy
-Criticises Merton: Crime can happen in groups and he ignores, assaults and vandalises> no economic and material benefit.
-Focus: w/c boys face anomie and m/c system.
-Status frustration: join delinquent subcultures.
-Subculture values: spite, malice, hostility.
-what society condemns they praise.
-Win status of their peers.
-Value inversion and status hierarchy explain non-economic crime.
Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures
(Merton’s ideas as a starting point)
-Not everyone in lack of status situation turns to innovation.
-Unequal access to legitimate and illegitimate opportunities.
-Criminal subcultures: youths are in long stand criminal culture with adult criminals, role models, opportunities, training.
-Conflict subcultures: In high population turnover, prevents criminal network developing- loosely unorganised gangs.
-Retreatism subcultures: Not all gang leaders actually succeed ‘double failure’ legitimate and illegitimate> based om illegal drug use.
The Chicago School
-Cultural transition theory-neighbours-criminal tradition-generation to generation.
-Differential association theory- deviant behaviour starts through social interactions = criminal value and skills.
-Social disorganisation theory- change (E.G.) rapid population turnover of migration create instability and become unable to exercise social control.
Subcultural Strain Theories Evaluation
-Agree with (Merton and Cohen) Crime is mostly w/c.
-Unlike Cohen- explanation for w/c subcultures and deviance.
However,
-They draw the boundaries too sharply between explanations.
Recent Strain theories
-Young people have other goals other than money success (E.G.) popularity.
-Failure to achieve results in delinquency.
-Middle class juveniles face this particularly.
Institutional anomie theory
(Messher and Rosenfeld)
-Obsession with money success and ‘winner takes all’ mentality pressure creates crime.
Functionalism:
Subcultural Functionalism Consolidation
P= Status frustration
E= Cohen> argues that lower class boys strove to emulate middle-class values + aspirations, but lacked the means to achieve success, this led to status frustration- a sense of personal failure + inadequacy.
E= Bourgois> Studied Latino + African-American drug dealers. Understandable that the youths in these subcultures + gangs did not work for minimum wage when there was a million-dollar industry on their doorstep.
E= Cohen ignores female delinquency + neglects police stereotyping.
P= An alternative status hierarchy
E= This delinquent subculture reverses the norms + values of mainstream culture, offering positive rewards (status) to those who are the most deviant.
E= Reggie Yates documentary> Boy joined a gang because he wanted to gain status + protection due to him being bullied.
E= Working-class boys actually conform at school despite education failure.
