Crime and Deviance (Theoretical explanations/Crime control and punishment)

Physiological and Psychological Explanations for Crime and Deviance:

What’s the Physiological Explanation?

-Distinguishing offenders and non-offenders.

-Comparing samples of offenders with non-offenders they hoped to identify what made criminals different.

-Late 19th century (Lombroso) built a picture of a typical criminal based on physical characteristics.

-Model of an atavistic, enormous jaws, huge eye sockets and other inherited features that can be found in criminals.

-Thought to be a ‘criminal gene’ but in 1960’s inmates for criminally insane were found to have an extra ‘y’ chromosome in genetic makeup.

-But later proven to be problematic as not all studied were found to have the chromosome and some non offenders had it.

What’s the Psychological Explanation?

-(Hans Eysenck) developed a more psychological approach.

-Argued ‘Delinquents’ he studies tended to have high levels of extroversion.

-However, although this characteristic is present in a person it didn’t necessarily mean they would become criminal.

-He suggested it depended on environmental as well as inherited factors.

-Some studies attempted t investigate the extent to which behaviour is inherited or caused by the environment (nature vs nurture).

• -(E.G.) twins separated at birth have been studied to see the extent to which their characteristics differ.

Functionalist Theories of Crime:

The inevitability of crime (Durkheim)

-(Durkheim)

-Not everyone effectively socialised into shared norms and values.

-In complex modern societies there is a diversity of lifestyles.

-Different groups develop their own subcultures with their own distinctive norms> what’s normal to them is deviant to others.

The positive functions of crime: (Boundary maintenance)

-Purpose of punishment is to reaffirm societies shared rules and reinforce social solidarity.

-May be done through rituals of the courtroom-dramatisies wrong doing-publicity shame.

-(Cohen) Importance of media ‘dramatisation of evil’-discouraging.

The positive functions of crime: (Adaptation and change)

-Individuals with new values and living styles must not be stifled by social control- some cope for them to challenge but it will appear as deviant.

-If new ideas are supressed society will be stagnant.

-Too much crime> threatens bonds of society.

-Too little crime> society is controlling members too much which stifles individual freedom.

Other theorists (Davis, Polsky, Cohen, Erikson)

-(Davis) Prostitution acts as a safety value for the release of men’s sexual frustrations without threatening the monogamous nuclear family.

-(Polsky) Pornography safely ‘channels’ a variety of sexual desires away from adultery (which poses threat to family).

-(Cohen) A warning that institutions aren’t functioning (E.G.) Truancy at school.

-(Erikson) Function of agencies (police) is to sustain certain level of crime not get rid of it completely.

Criticisms of Functionalist theories of crime

-(Durkheim) Doesn’t state what ‘right’ amount of crime is.

-Functionalists> Ignore how it affects individuals or small group (E.G.) murderer punished- reinforces social solidarity.

-Crime doesnt always promote solidarity- can make people feel more isolated> women stay inside- as a fear of being attacked.

-Functionalism:

The inevitability of Crime Consolidation

• P= Social regulation

  E= Can perform a boundary setting function- reminding the law, pursuit, trial + punishment of criminals reassure people that society is functioning effectively.

  E= Davies> prostitution provides economic support for unskilled women

  E= Deviance is a warning signal that something in society is not properly working.

• P= Social integration

  E= Some crimes create public outrage which reinforce social solidarity + community values against offenders, argued it only becomes dysfunctional when its rate is unusually high or low.

  E= London Riots, when particularly horrific crimes have been committed the whole community joins together in outrage.

  E= Taking official crime statistics at face value

• P= Social change

  E= Every time a person is prosecuted for a crime attention is drawn to that act. When the law is clearly out of step with the feelings + values of the majority, legal reform is necessary.

  E= Sufragette movement

  E= Assume that society has universal norms + values.

Merton’s Strain theory:

Origins and key ideas

-People engage in deviant behaviour when they are unable to achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means.

-Deviance is a strain between> goals that culture encourages/what institutional structure of society allows them to achieve legitimately.

The American Dream

-Promote: self-discipline, study, qualifications and hard work in a career.

-American Dream: reminder that their society is meritocratic.

-Reality is different: Many disadvantaged groups not given opportunity to achieve legitimately (E.G.) job market can block ethnic minorities.

-Pressure of goal of money success=crime.

-(Merton) Emphasis on achieving at any means winning the game becomes more important than the rules.

Deviant adaptations to strain

-(Merton) Patterns of deviance>5 different types of adaptation.

-Conformity: strive to achieve legitimate goals (mostly m/c)

-Innovation: accept goal and do it through illegitimate means.

-Ritualism: give up on goals, internalised legitimate means and follow rules.

-Retreatism: reflect goals and legitimately.

-Rebellion: replace societies goals and means.

Merton’s Strain Theory Evaluation

-(Merton)

-Most crime is property crime- America and material wealth.

-L/C high crime rates- least opportunity.

However,

-Takes official stats at face value- over present w/c crime.

-Deterministic- working class experience strain- don't all deviate individually.

-Marxist ignores power of the ruling.

Functionalism:

Structural Functionalism Consolidation

• P= Bonds of attachment

  E= Hirschi> crime is a result of poor/ a lack of socialisation into societies shared norms + values. Criminal activity occurs when an individual’s attachment to society is weakened.

  E= Negative experience of discrimination, working-class students due to labelling- struggle to find a job, so turn to crime.

  E= Blames the victim, ignores wider societal factors e.g. poverty, middle class commit crimes as well.

• P= Strain theory

  E= Merton> ‘if we work hard we will be rewarded with status + material health’. The problem is there are insufficient opportunities for all those who work hard to achieve, this is therefore a strain between what we think we should have + our ability to achieve this legitimately. Striving to achieve the ‘American dream’ could lead to criminal or deviant behaviours.

  E= Retreatism> lack the means of achieving society’s goals but also don’t accept the goals.

  Rebellion> people who reject the dominant social goals + the means the achieve them e.g. terrorist

  E= Marxist> Ignores the powers of ruling class who enforce laws in a way that criminalise the poor but not the rich.

Subcultural Strain Theories:

(Cohen) status frustration and the alternative status hierarchy

-Criticises Merton: Crime can happen in groups and he ignores, assaults and vandalises> no economic and material benefit.

-Focus: w/c boys face anomie and m/c system.

-Status frustration: join delinquent subcultures.

-Subculture values: spite, malice, hostility.

-what society condemns they praise.

-Win status of their peers.

-Value inversion and status hierarchy explain non-economic crime.

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures

(Merton’s ideas as a starting point)

-Not everyone in lack of status situation turns to innovation.

-Unequal access to legitimate and illegitimate opportunities.

-Criminal subcultures: youths are in long stand criminal culture with adult criminals, role models, opportunities, training.

-Conflict subcultures: In high population turnover, prevents criminal network developing- loosely unorganised gangs.

-Retreatism subcultures: Not all gang leaders actually succeed ‘double failure’ legitimate and illegitimate> based om illegal drug use.

The Chicago School

-Cultural transition theory-neighbours-criminal tradition-generation to generation.

-Differential association theory- deviant behaviour starts through social interactions = criminal value and skills.

-Social disorganisation theory- change (E.G.) rapid population turnover of migration create instability and become unable to exercise social control.

Subcultural Strain Theories Evaluation

-Agree with (Merton and Cohen) Crime is mostly w/c.

-Unlike Cohen- explanation for w/c subcultures and deviance.

However,

-They draw the boundaries too sharply between explanations.

Recent Strain theories

-Young people have other goals other than money success (E.G.) popularity.

-Failure to achieve results in delinquency.

-Middle class juveniles face this particularly.

Institutional anomie theory

(Messher and Rosenfeld)

-Obsession with money success and ‘winner takes all’ mentality pressure creates crime.

Functionalism:

Subcultural Functionalism Consolidation

• P= Status frustration

  E= Cohen> argues that lower class boys strove to emulate middle-class values + aspirations, but lacked the means to achieve success, this led to status frustration- a sense of personal failure + inadequacy.

  E= Bourgois> Studied Latino + African-American drug dealers. Understandable that the youths in these subcultures + gangs did not work for minimum wage when there was a million-dollar industry on their doorstep.

  E= Cohen ignores female delinquency + neglects police stereotyping.

• P= An alternative status hierarchy

  E= This delinquent subculture reverses the norms + values of mainstream culture, offering positive rewards (status) to those who are the most deviant.

  E= Reggie Yates documentary> Boy joined a gang because he wanted to gain status + protection due to him being bullied.

  E= Working-class boys actually conform at school despite education failure.