Compromises at the Constitutional Convention and Principles of American Government

Vocabulary flashcards covering the key compromises of the 1787 Constitutional Convention, principles of American government, and the evolving relationship between federal and state powers.

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

The agreement at the $1787$ Convention that created a bicameral legislature with a House of Representatives based on population and a Senate offering equal representation ($2$ seats per state).

Three-Fifths Compromise

An agreement counting three out of every five enslaved individuals for purposes of congressional representation and direct taxation.

Electoral College

The constitutional body established to select the U.S. President, balancing selection by Congress against a direct popular vote.

Article V Amendment Process

The two-step constitutional process requiring a $\frac{2}{3}$ vote in Congress (or state conventions) to propose, and a $\frac{3}{4}$ vote of state legislatures to ratify an amendment.

Slave Trade Compromise

An agreement prohibiting Congress from banning the international slave trade until $1808$.

Separation of Powers

The constitutional division of executive, legislative, and judicial responsibilities into distinct branches of government.

Checks and Balances

A constitutional system granting each branch of government specific powers to limit or restrain the actions of the other two branches.

Federalist No. 51

An essay by James Madison arguing that separation of powers and checks and balances will prevent government tyranny ("Ambition must be made to counteract ambition").

Impeachment

The formal power of the House of Representatives to charge a federal official with high crimes and misdemeanors, followed by a trial in the Senate.

Veto / Veto Override

The President's constitutional power to reject a bill passed by Congress, which Congress can override with a $\frac{2}{3}$ vote in both houses.

Federalism

A constitutional system dividing political power between a central national government and subnational state governments.

Enumerated (Expressed) Powers

Powers explicitly granted to the federal government in the text of the Constitution (Article I, Section $8$).

Implied Powers

Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but reasonably inferred as necessary to carry out enumerated federal duties.

Reserved Powers

Powers belonging exclusively to the states or the people under the $10^{th}$ Amendment.

Concurrent Powers

Governing powers shared and exercised independently by both national and state governments simultaneously.

Necessary and Proper (Elastic) Clause

Article I, Section $8$ clause granting Congress the authority to pass all laws necessary to execute its enumerated powers.

Supremacy Clause

Article VI clause establishing that the U.S. Constitution, federal statutes, and national treaties constitute the supreme law of the land.

Commerce Clause

Article I, Section $8$ clause empowering Congress to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the states, and with Native American tribes.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Landmark Supreme Court case confirming federal implied powers to create a national bank under the Elastic Clause and denying states the power to tax federal entities under the Supremacy Clause.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

Landmark Supreme Court case ruling that Congress exceeded its Commerce Clause authority with the Gun-Free School Zones Act, marking a shift toward devolution.

Devolution

The transfer of power and administrative responsibility from the federal government back to state governments.

Fiscal Federalism

The federal government's pattern of spending, taxing, and providing grants-in-aid to influence state public policies.

Categorical Grants

Federal grants-in-aid given to states for specific, narrow purposes with strict federal conditions attached.

Block Grants

Federal money granted to states for broad policy areas, giving state officials discretion on how to spend it.

Mandates

Federal requirements imposed on state governments; unfunded mandates require state compliance without providing federal money to cover costs.

Dual Federalism ("Layer Cake")

A system where state and national governments operate strictly within separate, clearly defined spheres of authority.

Cooperative Federalism ("Marble Cake")

A system where federal and state governments share responsibilities, policy execution, and funding.