Health Studies Exam

chapter 3, 4, 9, 10, 11

framework for health promotion

used as a guide to plan health promotion efforts

provides outline of how to structure or plan for health promotion strategy in order to have the maximum chance of success

focus

• select who effort will be targeted towards

• sets focus for evaluation

• what is the issue we are focusing on and why?

• what is the population we are focusing on?

e.g individually focused intervention will be measured by testing health outocomes at individual level (e.g blood pressure)

strategies

how change is made and what strategies are used to encourage this change

types of strategies

educational

• what can be done to educate/teach people how to improve their health concerning focus area

motivational

• why should people want to change? how to convince them to change?

operational

• what do we need to adjust in health businesses in order to change outcomes

economic

• what monetary changes need to be made

regulatory

• what laws can be changed (either removed, adjusted or included) to encourage this change

technological

• what technological changes or additions can be made

impact

type of strategies used will influence impact of intervention

• changes in behaviour = behavioural changes

• changes in sociala nd physical environment in which people live (environmental adaptations)

• interaction between two as environmental causes behaviour and behaviour can shape environment

outcomes

better health and quality of life

reduction in poor health behaviours and choices or increase in better health promoting behaviours and choices

changes in thinking about personal group or population health and expectations

environmental supports for health promotion

government regulations

environmental legislation

physical supports

social

economic

educational

government regulations

regulatory, economic

• controls that ensure communities maintain certain health practices (control on level of chlorine in swimming pools)

environmental legislation

operational, regulatory

• laws guard our health and wellbeing

physical supports

operational, economic

provision of hospitals, nursing homes, surgeries

social supports

educational, motivational, economic

health personnel that are trained to assist in healthcare

economic supports

economic

governments allocating sufficient money to support health and welfare programs

educational supports

educational, motivational, technological

traditional and health education in schools + info education and advice provided in other settings

interrelationship between beliefs, attitudes and values

• when person has several beliefs that relate to an object or situation and cause them to become prone to action, they become attitudes

• beliefs are translated into attitudes through values

• values instilled in us from a young age

• education helps young people develop healthy values and clarify what they value

if belief is proven incorrect/changed, flow on effect is that associated value may change

health promotion aims to change a belief and therefore change attitudes and behaviours

is prevention better than cure?

• less cost in terms of treatment, medication, diagnostics and medical services

• less emotional trauma/suffering for those who have to go through treatment or support someone who is going through treatment

• reduces amnt of chronic disease

• can target wider audience rather than one small “sick” group

what is the aim and role of health promotion

role: reduce burden of disease

aim: to prevent illness, injury, disease by helping communities and individuals become empowered

health promotion definition

the process of enabling people to increase control over and to improve their health

Health Belief Model

a framework used in health promotion to motivate individuals to participate in prevention and intervention programs

• aims to explain and predict health behaviours by focusing on a person’s attitudes and beliefs

Why?

in 50s as a reaction to a failed, free tubercolosis screening program

focus of HBM

to assess health behaviour of an individual by looking at their perceptions and attitudes towards disease and negative health outcomes of certain factors

what does the HBM assume?

assumes that behaviour change occurs in the existence of three ideas at the same time

• an individual recognises that there is enough reason to make a health concern relevant (perceived severity and susceptibility)

• the person understands he or she may be vulnerable to a disease or negative health outcome (perceived threat)

• the individual must realise that behaviour change is beneficial and benefits of that change will outweigh the costs

  (percieved benefits and barriers)

percieved threat

comes about from assessing a person’s susceptibility to a disease and how severe that disease is

how an individual thinks about a disease.

formed and includes two main processes

• susceptibility

• severity

threatened = more likely to be motivated to act in a way to prevent it from happening

susceptibility

the risk a person has to a particular disease or health outcome and perception that a health problem is personally relevant and that their health is in jeopardy

greater perceived risk = greater likeliness to adopt a positive bheaviour

• examines the individuals opinions about how likely the behaviours they partake in are going to lead to a negative health outcome

• e.g if a smoker does not feel that they are at risk of developing any of these diseases, they have no reason to undergo a behaviour change

• one of the goals of the HBM is to change perceptions of susceptibility to move towards behaviour change

severity

a persons perception of how serious an illness/disease is

• in the case of the smoker, they may not realise how difficult and strenous lung cancer may be

aims to increase awareness of how serious the outcomes of the behaviours can be in order to increase quality of life

will not take action unless they perceive that seriousness is significant enough to have an impact on their health and wellbeing

perceived benefits

a persons perception of the benefits of adopting health behaviours

goal is greater quality of life both mentally and physically, and must be convinced the intervention is safe and will work

benefits must outweigh the costs (pros > cons)

e.g ease of taking medication, dont even get sick, peace of mind

perceived barriers

reasons why an individual feel s that they are unable to participate in such interventions

must believe the benefits outweight consequences

fear of pain, time, cost,

outcome expectatiosn

the perception of the individual that the suggested intervention will actually work

• determined by weighing up percieved benefits and barriers

• if a person believes that the benefits of being vaccinated against COVID will protect them long term, and the benefits outweigh the barriers to being vaccinated (like potential shortterm side effects), and they believe the vaccination will work, they are more likely to get vaccinated.

cues to action

Refers to events, people or things that enable/encourage behaviour change

going to a health fair, seeing a condom poster on a train, seeing a COVID vaccination ad on TV. or having a relative have a heart attack because of high blood pressure caused by obesity.

self efficacy

an indivudals belief that they can carry out and action

• Outcome Expectations and Perceived Threat can impact on one’s self-efficacy to participate in an intervention.

• indvbelieves they are likely to get sick, and if they do get sick it will be verybad, and they believe intervention will work, then they have increased self efficacy that they can go through with doing so

screening

involves testing and monitoring of a non-symptomatic population for signs of disease prior to knowing they are even sick

conditions to be met for screening to be effective

• must be able to recognise early warning signs and to seek treatment or a test that detects very early signs and symptoms

• msut be test that confirms specfici disease, virus or bactaries and substandiates the warning signs

• must be reliable treatment that is successful in treating disease early ansd stopping progression

screenings in australia

breastcancer = self examination/ mammograms for women once breasts have develpooed evert 2 years from 40 years

colon cancer = facael occult blood test - 2 years from age 50 where a test is sent in the mail

immunisations

• body uses white blood cells to defend bdy from harmful intruders like viruses and bacteria, known as antigens

• WBC makes antibodies specific to each intruder

• destroy them or help WBC destroy them

vaccines help body produce these antibodies to attack against bacterial intruders and viruses

• vaccine contains dead or weakend version of the antigen, so person doesn’t get sick

• body reacts to it by making antibodies

• once body has fought germ once, it leaveas memory cells to stay on the lookout for it again

• notify WBC if they detect germ

• quickly make antibodies and fight disease much quicker than the first time and patient might not even know they had it

how do memory cells work

• after you have been vaccinated, B lymphocytes (CELLS RESPONSIBLE FOR PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASE) act as if real infections organism was invading you rbody

• multiply to form army of identical cells which can respond to antigens in vaccine

• cloned cells evolves into plasma cells or memory B cells

PLASMA CELLS

• produce antibodies which specifically attach to and inactivate the organism you are being vaccinated against

• this response generated by B lymphocytes is the primary response

• several days the build maximum intensity

• antibody concentration peaks at 14 days

• body ocntinues making antibodies and memory B cells for a couple of weeks after vaccination

• antibodies gradually disappear, but B cells remain dormant in body for many years

MEMORY B CELLS

• keep memory of organism that you were vaccinated against

• if exposed to organism again, dormant memory cells with recog it straight away

• rapidly start multiplying and developing into plasma cells

• bc they have already been trained to produce antibodies against organism, they can produce large number of antibodies against the organismvery quickly

secondary response: antibodies attach to invading orgs and prevents them from attacking healthy cells. antibodies produced very quickly, so they can fight the disease before you even get sick. faster and more effective because all the preparations for the attack were made when you were vaccinated

health education

health promotion includes any activities that help individuals and communities increase control over determinants of health

• health edu can be used to promote health as it helps people gain control over lives such as decision making skills na dresiliency

• includes sport, physical activity and recreation. individuals ultimately make decisions that affect their own health, health education assists them in making health choices and leading healthier lives

• life. be in it

• slip slop slap

• grim reader

main aim is to improve health literacy

health edu in schools in curriculum allows young people to

• learn to access, eval and synthesies info, make decisions and seek help for own and others health, wellbieng and safety

• develop self management and personal skills to build and maintain personal identity and relationships

• analyse how person, social, cultural, economic, technological and environmental factos shape understanding of and opportunities for health and physical activity

primary prevention

aimed at the population as a whole

tries to prevent disease before it occurs

most cost effective as it avoids diagnosis, detection, treatment and recovery

• immunisation

• health education

• pasteurisation of milk

• washing hands,

• drinking clean water

goal is to completely avoid suffering, cost and burden of disease by intervening before onsent of any illness occurs

secondary prevention

also referred to as early detection

• aims to locate symptoms early enough to be treated easily

• goal is to identify and treat infected people and catch disease as early as possible before advancements of symptoms

• screening tests

goal is to, by diagnosing diseases quicky (espesh in cases like cancers and heart disease), progression of disease can be stopped to minimise effects

tertiary prevention

when primary prevention and secondary prevention have failed

• means to fight the disease

• includes treatment, surgery, medication, recovery techniques

• goal is to minimise negative impacts of illness, restore function and prevent complications

includes follow and up and monitoring of all prescribed medications to. make sure patient is taking them

therapy to retore function

medical procedures

health literacy

the ability of individuals to access and understand helaht information to make informed, wise decisions

• requires being able to read and processs packaging on health products, hospital forms or instructions of prescriptions

critical literacy + benefits

Ability to synthesize health information and technology with discernment and judgement. •

Based on awareness of relationships between language and power.

• Important to understand how knowledge can influence beliefs and attitudes, which can in turn influence behaviour.

• People need to be careful not to be manipulated by the media and technology to behave in ways that may be harmful or damaging to health without their knowledge.

functional health literacy

characteristed by individuals with enough health literacy to choose products and services for personal use, read and follow instructions on labels and have some knowledge of risks

• focuses on reading, comprehension and understanding instructions

Individual benefits: improved knowledge of risks and services, compliance with prescribed actions. •

Social benefits: ↑ participation in population health programs (screening immunisations).

interactive health literacy

moves on from basic skills required to choose products or read instructions and describes individuals who seek to improve their personal skills and strats to act on health advice

• develop independence ad take active interest in health

• improves peoples personal and social skills

Individual benefits: improved capacity to act independently on knowledge, improved motivation and self-confidence •

Social benefits: ↑ capacity to influence social norms, interact with social groups

critical health literacy

people who have the cognition and skills (communication and investigation) to initiate social and political action for health outcomes.

Individuals understand social, environmental and economic determinants of health and seek to improve community health.

Individual benefits: improved individual resilience to social and economic adversity

• Social benefits: ↑ capacity to act on social and economic determinants of health, improved community empowermen

skills for health literacy

accessing, reading, comprehension and health information

accessing

Being able to obtain/retrieve/locate the information needed. •

Includes considering the validity, reliability and credibility.

• having or owning rights to reading information (e.g peer reviewed articles need to be paid for to be read, which can be a barrier to some consumers)/ library membership requirements, which limits accessibility

• Not knowing how to properly use tools and search engines. • Important to know what words and language to type in while searching

reading

once access it obtained, they must be able to read it

not all info is available in all languages, may are published in english, which, for many, is not a first language

use of medical jargon can make it difficult for it to be read by many healthconsumers

research studies have found a discrepancy between reading level of educational materials and reading ability of patients

comprehending

grasping content to understand it and apply it to yourself/situation at hand

• being able to put into practice health adicce and understand how it should be applied in a unique situation

• can;t comprehend medical jargon, speaking too quickly, sophisticated language which reduces understainding

• may not understand when to return to follow up or how to take medication

• meaning of info could be lost or misunderstood as medical jargon is not recognised

self care

looking after oneself or personal health maintanece

• includes activities that treat or prevent a disease

• include eating well, physical activity, sellf creening, rehabilitation, sleep, postiive thinking, relaxtation activity

disease management

an approach to healthcare that teaches patients how to manage a chronic disease

patients learn to take responsibility for understanding how to take care of themselves to avoid potential problems

consists of group of iinterventions designed to prevent or manage one or more chronic conditions in systemic, multidisciplinary approach

goal: promote self management by patients and to help individual work together with health professionals to address their illness

patients encouraged to learn disease management principles to become more empowered tomanage the disease themselves

principles of disease management

care planning

self monitoring

self administered treatment

allied health professionals

emergency ocntact

review

care planning

patients work with health professionals to prepare detailed disease management plans

• types of care neeed

• guidelines for monitoring, check ups and meds

communication>>

self monitoring

patients are taught symptoms of condition adn hwo to monitor themselves for signs and symptoms

• e.g diabetic is taught how to take blood samples for insulin levels

reduces need for doctors visits everyday so long as they can manage the monitoring themselves

self adminstered treatment

once self monitoring acheived, can admin their own treatment and meds

• reduces need for hospital admissions and attendance of nurse

e.g arthiritis sufferr can monotor pain and mobility and adminsiter anti-inflammatory meds to themselves

empowers them to manage pain levesls and as much as possible carry out normal life routine

allied health profesisonals

maintains appointments with allied health services like dieticians, physiotherapists and psychologists to support them in magaing their disease

emergency contact

disease management encourages quick access to emergency by helping providing patients with contact details to GP, specialist and pharmacist

• allows independent management of disease while also being able to get emergent help when needed

review

regular appointments with health professionals when needed, adjust treatment plans and refer for specialised monitoring like x rays and blood tests

factors taht infleunce the use of health products and services

media

transport

cost

consumer confidence

media

current affairs + product placement

• can be swayed to choose one brand over the other due to advertising or use by fave celebrity

• product manufactureres will use media to persuade consumers to use product and increase confidence

transport

availability of public trans, parking, accessibility can influence uptake of health services

• consumers who’ve got to travel to service provider would likely choose somewhere more local and accessible

• health facilities with easy transport mechnaism like close proxmity to train station will likely attract customers

• use of + accesss to abumalance and paramedics (emergenc services) will be influecned by health insurance/emergency covereage they may have.

• (can be excluded from services as they cant afford insurance coverage.

• ambulances can also influence health facilities they use, and emergency services determine where patient is take

cost

expense of product influences selection of particular brand

• but porducts htey feel are quality for money and safe, regardless of price

• selection of health services is not dependent on price if individual has private health insurance

• low income earners may not have choice but to buy cheaper health products and services

consumer confidence

trusted brands develop emotional connects between customer and brand (e.g panadol promotes feelings of value, market leadership, ease and quality, which influences people to buy it over cheaper alts)

e.g medical procedures on tv allow consumers to undergo procedure themselves by demystifying the procedure and making them feel better educated. also increases confidence in equiptment being used

product placement

embedded marketing makes consumers feel and care about something leading them to be more likely to act upon these feelings and want to be involved in such products

revenue crerated by this form of advertising can keep subscription prices low for streaming servieces

health inquiry steps

planning

locating and selecting

interpreting

presenting

purpose of a health inquiry

The purpose is to explore a health issue, gather data and information, with the aim of developing conclusions and making recommendations to improve health.

planning

identification of a health issue + a description of it

development of focus questions to research it

identify context, health concern + related issues

develop health issue statement

uses basis of statement for focus quesitons

writing a health issue statement

To write your problem statement, briefly answer these questions with the support of recent/ reliable statistics: • What is occurring? • What is affected and to what degree? • What could happen if the problem is not addressed?

writing focus questions

OPEN ENDED questions designed to make the researcher think and that allow for information to be obtained. • Be specific and clear and include a TOPIC, the WHO and the WHAT you are inquiring about. • CANNOT be answered with a YES or NO. • Should encourage HIGHER ORDER THINKING (analysis, evaluation, and synthesis). • Each question asks only ONE thing. • Cannot be asking something you already know the answer to.

locating and selecting

use of a range of information to explore a health issue

identification and use of a range of reliable information sources

idnetifcationa nd application of criteria for selecting info sources

information source criteria

Recency – is the information current?

❑ Reputation of publication – is the source well known and reputable? ❑ Kind of publication – is it a scientific report, eye-witness account, doctor’s researched opinion etc.

❑ Author of publication – expert in their field or opinionated online blogger?

❑ Location of publication – is it Australian or from overseas? Which audience is the information intended?

❑ Bias – is the article one-sided or does it consider all angles? ❑ Chance for personal gain – does the author stand to benefit from their position on the topic?

❑ Confirmation – can anyone else back up the claims in the article

? ❑ Means of obtaining the information – how did the author find out their information?

❑ Who is the author or sponsor of the page?

❑ The individual or organisation along with their qualifications should be identified on the webpage so if this isn’t on here don’t use the site.

❑ Are there obvious reasons for bias? ❑ Is contact information provided?

❑ Who holds the copyright for the page/information? When is that from?

❑ What is the purpose of the page? Why is it being posted

? ❑ E.g., As a public service, for information, as a news source, for academics etc.

❑ How well organised is the page?

❑ Less well organised pages will generally be less trustworthy.

interpreting

interpret the information, identify patterns and trends and draw conclusions. • It must be in your own words, and you should credit other authors where you use their ideas or their words. • When interpreting: 1. Organise information and findings presented in articles etc. 2. Dot point major relationships/trends in data. 3. Summarise conclusions. 4. Make recommendations (for how health can be improved).

summary + recommendations

Identify and underline key words and main ideas.

• Condense/ group similar ideas under your own headings. •

Re-phrase: think of words or phrases which mean roughly the same as the original text – USE SYNONYMS → write in your OWN words.

• If key words are specialised vocabulary for the subject, they do not need to be changed

recommendations

Make recommendations on how to improve health for the target group. • Recommendations must be:

• REALISTIC! If they couldn’t be done in the real world → not considered a recommendation.

• Examples of recommendations made in health: • Primary or secondary education (relative to age group).

• Laws = rules a community / country recognises as regulating actions which can be enforced by penalties.

• Regulation = guidelines that dictate how the laws are maintained (e.g., fines).

• Policies = course or action adopted or proposed by an organisation or individual (e.g., no hat no play in primary schools) .

presenting

There are a variety of ways information can be presented in health inquiries.

• It is important to communicate your findings in a style that is suitable to your target audience.

• For example: You must present information on the importance of preventing skin cancer to two different groups of people – immigrants who speak very little English and the average American who is moving to Australia.

• How would presentation to these two groups of people differ?

• Immigrants – pictures/diagrams, less words, simple language, possibly a poster or pamphlet.

• Americans – mixture of words and images, could be in a presentation or a brochure.

epidemiology

study of the distribution and determinants of health related conditions in specified populations and the pplication of the study to control health problems

• used to predict life expectancies + disease outbreaks

• advice and inform health promotion

• concerned with study of health related events in a population such as influenza

what do epidemiologists do?

count cases of disease and injury

define affected population

compute rates of disease/injury in that population

mortality

death. can refere to number of people who have died in a population (mortality rate) or large number of people who have died due to a particular cause

infant mortality

death of babies and children

• can be measured in children under 1 year of age or under 5

• number of babies who die or the proportion of live births who dont survive in a population

• does not include still births

llife expectancy

how long on average a peron is expected to live, specific to population of origin or ethnic group

number of yeasr a population group is expected to live is based ona. statistical average of recent mortality rates

incidence of disease

number of new cases of a disease or condition ina. specifci place and time period.

gives indication of risk of contracting a disease for an individual

gives an indication of voerall size of health problem, how widespread it is, how many people affected

prevalence of disease

overall number of cases of a specific disease given in a population at a certain time

gives and indication of the overall size of the health problem, how widespread it is, and how many are affected

burden of disease

health loss to society due to disease or injury that remains after treatment, rehab or prevention efforts.

one measure of burden of disease is disability adjusted life years (DALY) determined by subtracting from the life expectncy the number of years lost due to premature death, and subtracting the years of healthy life lost due to disability and illness from disease