Motor Development exam 3 TYK

What changes in visual sensation occur during infancy? During childhood?

infancy:

- by 6 months infants vision develops for locomotion through environment

- infants can differentiate facial features

- perception of direction and velocity improves in infancy

- at 6 mo. infants can perceive depth

childhood:

- acuity id 20/30 by 5 yrs

acuity is 20/20 by 10

- figure & ground and whole & part object perception improves in childhood

- spatial orientation improves in childhood

Describe how humans perceive depth in the space around them

retinal desparity: depth is perceived by getting new information from visual field at different angles due to our eyes being in different locations

motion parallax: as objects get closer to the retina they move in front of objects that are further away

optic flow: as we move forward and back (changing body orientation) we change the pattern of the environment we see

What changes in kinesthetic sensation occur during infancy? During childhood?

infancy:

- can locate and respond touches on face

- vestibular apparatus functions by 2 mon.

- accidental manipulation

childhood:

- perception to touch

- ability to differentiate touches

- intentional manipulation

- haptic memory, object and speed recognition improve

- perception in extent of movement

- children master up/down 1st, then front/back, then side/side

- improving laterality and directionality and labeling L&R by age 10

- handedness developed by age 4

What changes in auditory sensation occur during infancy? During childhood?

infancy:

- higher threshold but detect normal voices

- by 3 mo. hear low frequency sounds

- turn in direct of sound

- 1-4 mo. can discriminate speech sounds

- temporal patterns perceived by 1 year

- 5-11 mo. can detect pronunciation (intensity) changes

- frequency pattern discriminated by 6 mo. (more complex at 1 year)

- can distinguish sound from ambient noise

- sensory systems improve

childhood:

- can locate distant sound by 3 yrs.

- accuracy discrimination improves - improvements in perceiving longer/complex patterns

What changes occur in the visual, kinesthetic, and auditory receptors in older adulthood?

visual:

- cataracts: cloud eyes

- presbyopia: can't see near images (age 40)

- need more light in dim environments because pupil shrinks

- greater difficulty with depth perception

kinesthetic:

- sensitivity may be lost making it harder to maintain balance

- proprioceptive acuity decreases

- greater impairments in judging passive leg movement (vs active)

auditory:

- presbycusis: age related hearing loss

- difficulty locating sounds

- hearing in noisy background gets harder

- absolute and differential threshold increases

- difficulty with speech perception due to declines in sensitivity to pure tones

What seems to be the role of experience with self-produced locomotion in the development of perception? Which aspects of perception are most affected?

- enhanced self-produced locomotor experience improves perception of spacial relationships.

- trail and error

- experience leads to faster learning

- locomotor experience influenced perception of surfaces and slopes. y showing more sensitivity to surfaces and slopes

What is an affordance? What does the notion of an affordance have to do with adapting equipment size to the size of a performer(scaling)?

- affordance: the capabilities of the performer determined by what the environment allowed

- affordance relates to body scaling body scaling relates the individuals size to what the environment permits

- ex: stairs afford climbing

- body scaling (leg length relative to the height of the stairs)

On what perceptual systems do children rely for balance, and how does this change with development?

- rely on visual, auditory, and kinesthetic systems for balance (sensory info)

- more kinesthetic than vision

- older adults use ankle muscles to recover after small perturbance and hip muscles after larger perturbance

- older adults take longer to initiate response after perturbation

- opposite patterns if young adults

- changes in sensory receptors

- decrease in strength

- arthritic conditions in joints

- slower nerve conduction speed

What changes in various body systems mightlead to a higher frequency of falls in olderadults? What might reduce the risk of falling?

higher frequency:

- changes in sensory receptors

- decrease in strength

- arthritic conditions in joints

- slower nerve conduction speed

lower frequency:

- practicing programs that stress strength and balance

- practice improves responses to perturbances

Who are the socializing agents most likely to influence children's socialization into sport and physical activity?

- siblings: girl's sport participation is influenced by brothers and sisters

- peers: influence group activities such as sports

- coaches

How might gender-role stereotyping result in fewer women participating in sport and physical activity?

- societal attitudes of "gender-appropriate" activities restrict options of physical activity

- few societal feminine sport options

- gender typed environments

- girls often can't participate in masculine sports (not appropriate)

- girl activities from a young age are less complex and vigorous connecting to less complex and vigorous female activity image in sports

Describe how toys are part of the socialization process.

- can encourage/discourage children to be inactive or active

- toys marketed for boys are more complex and vigorous (traditional gender roles)

- the packaging and advertising gender types

What is the difference between sex and gender, and why does this distinction matter in the context of motor development?

- sex: biological characteristics

- gender: socially determined male/female characteristics

- sex is an individual constraint while gender is a sociocultural constraint. gender is affects motor development because the societal attitudes of gender-appropriate activities restrict options for physical activity for boys and girls. it can either encourage or discourage socially acceptable movement

Describe the changing roles of significant others across childhood and adolescence.

- during early childhood parents are more of an influential socializing agent than adolescence

- the influence of siblings decreases as we exit childhood

- the socializing influence of our peers increases in adolescence

What is self-esteem? Is it general or specific? How is self-esteem developed?

- self esteem: self-evaluation of individual capabilities

- general

development:

- younger than 10 developed based on parental appraisal and outcomes of contest to determine physical competence

- children older than 10 rely on peers and comparison

- feedback/appraisals from coaches and teachers

People tend to attribute their successes and failures to various causes. What are the differences in the causal attributions made by those with high self-esteem and those with low self-esteem? To what do children attribute their performance?

high:

- internal: what did they do to lead to outcome

- stable: factors influencing outcomes are consistent (new gym but still confident because practice and perform same skills

- controllable: individual controls influencing factors (not luck but practice for it)

- believe that with effort they can and will improve

low:

-external: success and failure from influences outside individual

- unstable: outcome is from fluctuating influences (like luck)

- uncontrollable: individual can't control outcome

- nothing I can do can affect outcome

children attribute se to effort and luck (if I try I am good)

if they have low se they don't want to try challenging tasks, avoid participating, and have low effort to do well

What factors are associated with persisting in sport and physical activity? With dropping out?

persisting:

- seeking mastery in skills and achieving goals

- part of a team

- make friends

- competition and success

- fun

- improve fitness

dropping out:

- don't like coach

- lack of time

- lack of playing time

- too much pressure

- lack of fun

- lack of progress

- lack of success

How might a teacher or coach use either a model of constraints or an ecological task analysis to design a sequence of lesson or practice plans?

How might a teacher or community program leader use a model of constraints or an ecological task analysis to include a child with a physical disability in a group activity?

Teachers are charged with providing a challenging learning task for students whose physical growth and maturation status, level of coordination, and experience with a task vary. How could a teacher use a model of constraints to plan 4 stations of varying difficulty levels for the class?