Psychology Research Methods and Biases: Key Concepts and Perspectives

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe an outcome was predictable after it has already happened.

Overconfidence Bias

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of your knowledge or abilities.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek and accept information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring conflicting evidence.

Evolutionary Perspective

An approach that explains behavior through traits that helped humans survive and reproduce.

Biological Perspective

An approach that explains behavior through the brain, nervous system, genetics, and hormones.

Psychodynamic Perspective

An approach that explains behavior through unconscious thoughts, inner conflicts, and childhood experiences.

Behavioral Perspective

An approach that explains behavior as learned through rewards, punishments, and observation.

Humanistic Perspective

An approach that focuses on free will, personal growth, and reaching one's potential.

Cognitive Perspective

An approach that studies how thoughts, memories, beliefs, and perceptions influence behavior.

Sociocultural Perspective

An approach that examines how social groups and cultural environments influence behavior.

Theory

A broad explanation supported by evidence that organizes observations and predicts behavior.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Falsifiable

Able to be tested and potentially proven incorrect.

Replication

Repeating a study to determine whether similar results can be produced.

Peer Review

The process in which experts evaluate a study before it is published.

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of one person, group, or situation.

Naturalistic Observation

Watching and recording behavior in its normal environment without interfering.

Meta-Analysis

A method that combines the results of many studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Correlational Study

A study that measures the relationship between variables without changing them.

Random Sample

A sample in which every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience Sample

A sample chosen because its members are easy to reach.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the important characteristics of a population.

Independent Variable

The variable that a researcher changes or controls.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured to see the effect of the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

An unintended variable that changes along with the independent variable and could affect the results.

Third Variable

An outside factor that may explain why two variables are correlated.

Operational Definition

A precise description of how a variable will be measured or changed in a study.

Random Assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance to reduce differences between the groups.

Control Group

The group that does not receive the treatment and is used for comparison.

Experimental Group

The group that receives the treatment or independent variable.

Placebo

A fake treatment that appears similar to the real treatment but has no active effect.

Placebo Effect

A change caused by a person's expectations rather than by the actual treatment.

Single-Blind

A study in which participants do not know which group they are in.

Double-Blind

A study in which neither the participants nor the researchers working with them know who receives the real treatment.

Quantitative

Numerical information that can be measured and statistically analyzed.

Qualitative

Descriptive information about qualities, experiences, or meanings.

Generalizability

The extent to which study results can apply to a larger population or other situations.

Institutional Review Board

A committee that reviews research to protect participants' rights, safety, and well-being.

Consent/Assent

Consent is informed agreement from an adult; assent is a minor's agreement along with permission from a parent or guardian.

Debrief

The explanation given after a study about its true purpose, procedures, and any deception used.

Confidentiality

Protecting participants' private information from being revealed.