history & theories of motivation

scientific management (frederick taylor)

program that sought to improve productivity and boost profits by controlling costs and work practices through time-motion studies

time motion studies (scientific management)

• break every action down into parts

• time those movements with a stopwatch

• develop new and more efficient movements

hawthorne studies (elton mayo)

determined effects of the work environment on employee productivity

motivation

process that accounts for one's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards reaching a goal

• can be intrinsic or extrinsic

mcgregor's view of human beings

proposed two distinct types of people

- theory x (negative)

- theory y (positive)

theory x

assumes employees dislike work, attempt to avoid it, and must be coerced/threatened to achieve goals

theory y

assumes employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and will exercise self-direction if committed to objectives

intrinsic motivators

internal desire to do something due to interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction

extrinsic motivators

motivation that comes from outside the person, including pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards

needs theories of motivation

Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, have the potential to create motivation

• maslow's hierarchy of needs, herzberg's hygiene needs, and mcclelland's theory of needs

maslow's hierarchy of needs

proposes 5 human needs that must be met from bottom to top

- physiological: hunger, thirst (salary/rewards)

- safety: protection from harm (job security)

^lower-order needs^

- belonging: friendship, affection (culture)

- self-esteem: status, self-respect (recognition)

- self-actualization: growth, achievement (results)

^higher-order needs^

problems of maslow's hierarchy

we all have diff priorities of needs (e.g., introverts spend less time + energy on belonging than extroverts)

- we may work on multiple or reach higher than what we have (not one by one)

- cannot be empirically tested

herzberg's hygiene needs (two-factor theory)

hygiene factors (physiological, safety, and belonging) are REQUIRED, not motivational

- actual motivators are factors associated w/ work itself + outcomes derived (self-esteem and self-actualization)

mcclelland's theory of needs

proposes three important motivators, depending on individual preferences

• achievement, power, and affiliation (e.g., high achievers will not thrive as managers)

need for achievement (mcclelland)

drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed

need for power (mcclelland)

need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise

need for affiliation (mcclelland)

desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

process theories

describes the actual ways in which we and others can be motivated (e.g., deciding to come to class --> tuition, desire to learn, already on campus)

expectancy theory

motivation is a factor of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence

- individuals act based on their evaluation of whether effort will lead to good performance, followed by a given outcome that is attractive or not

expectancy

belief that effort will have an effect on performance

- e.g., max effort --> good performance appraisal

(effort-performance relationship)

instrumentality

e.g., good performance appraisal --> rewards

(performance-reward relationship)

valence

value or importance one places on a reward

(rewards-personal goals relationship)

how to increase motivation using expectancy theory?

1. expectancy: improve ability to perform by providing training & assigning reasonable tasks/goals

2. instrumentality: increase belief that performance will lead to reward by delivering rewards as promised

3. valence: ensure reward is meaningful by asking employees what they value + giving valued rewards

goal-setting theory

specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance

• directs attention, regulates effort, increases persistence, and encourages development of strategies/action plans

• reliable empirical evidence (e.g., SMART goals)

problems of goal-setting theory

focus on goal may lead one to ignore everything else

equity theory

comparing job inputs and outcomes w/ those of others, and responding so as to eliminate inequities

- referent selection choices: self-inside, self-outside, other-inside, other-outside

self-inside (equity theory)

compare to one's experience in a diff job but same organization

self-outside (equity theory)

compare to one's experiences in a position outside the employee's current organization

other-inside (equity theory)

compare to another individual or group inside one's organization

other-outside (equity theory)

compare to another individual or group outside one’s organization

responses to inequity

• change inputs or outcomes

• adjust perceptions of self or others

• choose diff referent

• quit

reinforcement theory

behavior is a function of its consequences

• operant conditioning: positive or negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction

operant conditioning (skinner)

behaviour is influenced by reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by its consequences

positive reinforcement

strengthen behaviour by adding rewarding stimulus (e.g., praise/recognition)

negative reinforcement

strengthen behaviour by removing aversive stimulus (e.g., seatbelt alarm)

punishment

weaken behaviour by adding aversive stimulus (e.g., suspension)

extinction

diminishing of a conditioned response due to stopped reinforcement

distributive justice (models of organizational justice)

perceived fairness of outcome

procedural justice (models of organizational justice)

perceived fairness of process used to determine outcome

interactional justice (models of organizational justice)

perceived fairness of treatment (i.e., with dignity & respect)