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PRSA’s definition of PR
public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics.
John Marston’s Four Step Model (R-A-C-E)
RESEARCH (research attitudes about the issue at hand)
ACTION (identify action of the client in the public interest)
COMMUNICATION (communicate that action to gain understanding, acceptance, and support)
EVALUATION (evaluate the communication to see if opinion has been influenced)
Research
research attitudes about the issue at hand
Action
identify action of the client in the public interest
Communication
communicate that action to gain understanding, acceptance, and support
Evaluation
evaluate the communication to see if opinion has been influenced
R-O-S-I-E approach
research
objectives
strategies
implementation
evaluation
R-P-I-E
research
planning
implementation
evaluation
PR, if it is to serve the organization properly must
report to top management
Public relations must serve as
an honest broker to management, unimpeded by any other group
For public relations to work, its advice to management bust be
unfiltered, uncensored, and unexpurgated
What are the five principles of the public relations process by Professor Sharpe?
Honest communication for credibility
Openness and consistency of actions for confidence
Fairness of actions for reciprocity and goodwill
Continuous two-way communication to prevent alienation and to build relationships
Environmental research and evaluation to determine the actions or adjustments needed for social harmony
Public relations professionals are mediators between
client (management) and public (all those key constituent groups on whom an organization depends)
A public arises when a group of people
faces a similar indeterminate situation,
recognizes what is indeterminate and problematic
organizes to do something about the problem
Publics can be classified into several overlapping categories:
Internal and external
Primary, secondary, and marginal
Traditional and future
Proponents, opponents, and the uncommitted
Spin means
the distinctive interpretation of an issue or action to sway public opinion, as in putting a positive slant on a negative story.
or
confusing an issue or distorting or obfuscating it or even lying
7 characteristics of a successful public relations career
Diversity of experience
Performance
Communications skills
Relationship building
Proactivity and passion
Teamliness
Intangibles, such as personality, likeability, and chemistry
6 Important technical skills
knowledge of the field
communications knowledge
technological knowledge
current events knowledge
business knowledge
management knowledge
6 Attitudes requesities
pro communications
advocacy
counseling orientation
ethics
willingness to take risks
positive outlook
Goals of Communication
to inform
to persuade
to motivate
to build mutual understanding
two-step flow theory
an organization would beam a message first to the mass media, which would then deliver that message to the great mass of readers, listeners, and viewers for their response.
concentric-circle theory
assumes that ides evolve gradually to the public at large, moving in concentric circles from great thinkers to great disciples to great disseminators to lesser disseminators to the politically active to the politically inert.
People pick up and accept ides from leaders, whose impact on public opinion may be greater than that of the mass media.
5 steps to stimulate behavioral change
building awareness
developing a latent readiness
triggering event
intermediate behavior
behavioral change
S-E-M-D-R communication process
S - source
E - encoding
M - message
D - decoding
R - receiver
Confirmation Bias
people seek out messages that agree with or “confirm” their own attitudes; they avoid messages that disagree or are “dissonant” to their own attitudes
Spiral of Silence
communications that work well depend on the silence and non-participation of a huge majority. called the silent majority
Constructivism
knowledge is constructed not transmitted
concerned with the cognitive process that precedes the actual communication within a given situation rather than with the communication itself
coordinated management of meaning
when we communicate - primarily through conversation - we construct our own social realities of what is going on and what kind of action is appropriate
Gruning-Hunt’s 4 PR model that define PR communications
press agentry/publicity
public information
two-way asymmetric
two-way symmetric
Press agentry / publicity
early form of communication
is essentially one-way communication that beams messages from a source to a receiver with the express intention of winning favorable media attention.
Public information
early form of one-way communication designed not necessarily to persuade but rather to inform
Two-way asymmetric
sophisticated two-way communication approach that allows an organization to put out its information and to receive feedback from its publics about that information.
two-way symmetric
preferred way of communicating advocates free and equal information flow between an organization and its publics, based on mutual understanding.
this approach is more “balanced”—symmetrical with the pr communicator serving as a mediator between the organization and the publics
3 popular explanations for what constitutes a message
the content is the message
the medium is the message
the man — or to avoid political incorrectness, the person is the message
the content is the message
the content of a communication constitutes its message
the medium is the message
The medium through which the message was carried is more important than the content of the message
The person is the message
The speaker of the message is what is the message
Receiver’s Bias
message decoding depends on the person’s perception
everyone is biased
stereotypes
symbols
semantics
peer group pressures
the media
Stereotypes
Most people are victims of stereotypes
stereotypes influence communication
Example: person wearing glasses more believable
Public figures are typecast regularly
Symbols
Symbols leave distinct impressions on most people
symbols can persuade
persuasion can be positive or negative
symbols can have different meanings to different people
Semantincs
use words to effectively communicate desired meanings
same words hold contrasting meanings for different people
language and meaning of words change constantly
consider consequences of words you plan to use before using them
Peer groups
peer pressure influences the way messages are perceived
peer groups influence attitudes and actions
Media
a powerful agenda setter
the traditonal may have lost some clout due to social, internet, cable news, and talk radio
NY Times, Washington Post, USA today are still usually the most powerful sor setting agendas
PR professionals have a direct role for setting the agenda for others
A communicator must get feedback from a receiver to know
what messages are or are not getting through and how to structure future communications
A message may trigger
attitude change
attitude crystallization
creation of a wedge of doubt
no effect
effective communication doesn’t take place if
the message doesn’t reach the intended receivers
the message doesn’t exert the desired effect on the receivers
communications may motivate an action that
is different from the desired one
loss of public opinion can result in
loss of prestige, business, and reputation
PR firms bill themselves as
experts in reputation management
The best public relations campaign in the world can’t build
trust when reality is destroying it.
if your product doesn’t worj, if your service stinks, if you are a liar, if the people you depend on are
committing secret unspeakable acts, then no amount of “public relations” will change that.
You must change the “action” before
credibility or trust can be built.
The heart of PR work lies in
attempting to affect the public opinion process.
Public
signifies a group of people who share a common interest in a specific subject.
Opinion
is the expression of an attitude on a particular topic.
When opinions become strong enough
they lead to verbal or behavioral actions
when attitudes become strong enough
they surface in the form of opinions
Public opinion is
the aggregate of many individual opinions on a particular issue that affects a group of people.
Research indicates that attitudes may more likely be
evaluations people make about specific problems or issues.
Attitudes are based on a number of characteristics
personal
cultural
educational
familial
religious
social class
minority status
attitudes are
positive, negative, or nonexistent.
cognitive dissonance theory
individuals tend to avoid information that is dissonant or opposed to their own points of view and tend to seek out information that is consonant with, or in support of their own attitudes
social judgement theory
people may have a range of opinions on a certain subject, anchored by a clear attitude.
Maslows hierarchy of needs
1. physiological needs
2. safety needs
3. love needs
4. esteem
5. self-actualization
elaboration likelihood model
when we are interested and focused on a message to take a direct “central route” to decision making
when we are not particularly engaged on a message and need to take a more “peripheral” route.
Best way to motivate interested people is with
arguments that are strong, logical, and personally relevant.
Best way to motivate people who are less interested might be through
putting them in a better mood or demonstrating through speech or clothes or mannerism, that you are very much “like” them.
Power of Persuasion
persuading is the goal of most public relations programs
getting someone to do something through advice, reasoning or arm-twisting
Classic Persuasion Theory
People may be of two minds in order to be persuaded to believe in a particular position or action
(systematic or heuristic)
Systematic mode
referring to a person who has carefully considered an argument — actively, creatively, and alertly
Heuristic mode
referring to a person who is skimming the surface and not really focusing on the intricacies of a particular position to catch flaws, inconsistencies, or errors.
What kind of evidence will persuade?
facts
emotions
personalizing
appealing to “you”
Laws of Public Opinion
1. opinion if highly sensitive to important events
2. opinion is determined more than events by words
3. at critical times, people are more sensitive to the adequacy of their leadership
4. once self-interest is involved, opinions are slow to change
5. people are able to form opinions more easily on goals than on methods to reach those goals
6. if people in a democracy are provided w educational opportunities and ready to access info, public opinion reveals a hardheaded common sense
Reputation is gained by what one does not by
what one says.
Reputation management
protecting clients from damage in the court of public opinion
Legal vs Public Relations advice
Lawyers correctly advise clients on what they must do, within the letter of legal requirements, to defend themselves in a court of law.
Public relations advisors counsel clients not on what they must do but what they should do to defend themselves in a different court—the court of public opinion.
From a legal point of view
the less an organization says prior to its day in court, the better
opposition can’t get new ammunition
lawyer tells you to say “say nothing and say it slowly!”
From a public relations point of view
makes sense to go public earl on especially if the organization’s integrity or credibility is being called into public question
Public relations society of America’s code of professional standards note
many activities that are unethical are also illegal.
there are instances in which something is perfectly legal but unethical, and other instances in which things might be illegal but otherwise ethical. Thus, when a public relations professional reflects on what course to take in a particular situation, he or she must analyze not only the legal ramifications but also the ethical considerations.2
First Amendment
cornerstore of free speech in our society
interpreting is a challenge
defening the amendment is a frontline responsibility of PR professionals
Defamation
umbrella term used to describe libel and slander
libel
a printed falsehood
slander
oral falsehood
For a defamation to be proved, a plaintiff must onvince the court that certain requirements have been met, including the following:
The falsehood was communicated through print, broadcast, or other electronic means.
The person who is the subject of the falsehood was identified or easily identifiable.
The identified person has suffered injury—in the form of monetary losses, reputational loss, or mental suffering.9
Actual Malice
in a public figure slander case means that statements have been published with the knowledge that they were false or with reckless disregard for whether the statements were false.
Definition of Defamation becoming more complex
proliferation of blogs, tweets, Facebook posts, cable and radio talk shows
people may say what they want without regard for factual accuracy or impact on a person’s life
the definition of defamation is becoming more global and complex
Insider Trading Law
Every public company has an obligation to deal frankly, comprehensively, and immediately with any information that is considered material.
A material announcement is one that might cause an investor to buy, hold, or sell a stock.
company is expected to release news that may affect its stock market price as quickly as possible so all investors have an opportunity to learn about material information as promptly as possible.
Securities and Exchange Commission’s (SEC) 10b-5 Rule of Securities and Exchange Act
strictly prohibits the dissemination of false or misleading information to investors.
It also prohibits insider trading of securities on the basis of material information not disclosed to the public.
Disclosure Law
SEC challenged corporations and PR firms on the accuracy of information they disseminate for clients.
bias toward disclosing rather than withholding material information
SEC increased focus on private meetings between companies and analysts
Fair disclosure (FD)
requires companies to widely disseminate any material announcement.
Sarbanes—Oxley Act
mandated all publicly traded companies to increase financial disclosure and submit an annual report of the effectiveness of their internal accounting controls to the SEC, with criminal and civil penalties for noncompliance.22
Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act
designed to increase transparency of financial reporting and also to create a new consumer protection agency, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau.
PR lawyers
attorneys who rise to fame and make their living as media personalities, using PR tactics
Super PACs
political action committees, that could accept unlimited contributions from individuals, unions, and corporations for the purpose of making independent expenditures, proliferated.
Copyright Law
provides basic, automatic protection for writers, whether a manuscript is registered with the Copyright Office or even published.
under the Copyright Act of 1976
an “original work of authorship” has copyright protection from the moment the work is in “fixed” form.
fixed
means that the work is sufficiently permanent to permit it to be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated.
work subject to copyright
Literary works, including articles
Songs, including words and music
Plays and choreographed dance performances
Art
Motion pictures and audiovisual works
Sound recordings
Architectural works
Copyright owners have exclusive right to
reproduce and authorize others to reproduce the work,
prepare derivative works based on the copyrighted material, and
perform and/or display the work publicly.