Urban Environments

Flashcards on urban environments

Urbanisation

The process by which an increasing percentage of a country's population comes to live in towns and cities.

Levels of development and urbanisation

Varies across the globe and between countries at different levels of development.

Developed countries

Countries with the highest levels of urbanisation.

Africa and Southeast Asia

Countries with the lowest levels of urbanization are located in these areas.

68%

By 2050, this percentage of the world's population is expected to live in urban areas.

Urbanisation in emerging countries

Happens mainly as a result of the decline of industry in developed countries and leads to industrial growth in emerging countries.

Urbanisation in developing countries

Occurs because most new economic development is concentrated in the big cities, and push-pull factors lead to high rates of rural-to-urban migration.

Urbanisation in developed countries

Occurs at lower rates because a high percentage of the population already live in towns and cities; rates may start to decrease as counter-urbanisation occurs.

Megacity

A city with more than 10 million people.

Rural dilution

The spreading of urban areas into rural regions due to modern transport and communication.

Natural increase

Decreased death rates and higher birth rates.

Urban pull factors

Higher wages, improved education and healthcare, and better job opportunities are examples of this.

Rural push factors

Limited healthcare and education, mechanisation of farming, and lack of opportunities are examples of this.

Agglomeration

People gather together in one area to sell goods and live leading to the development of small trading posts and villages.

Suburbanisation

Towns grow and expand outwards through this process which adds to the built-up area with lower building densities.

Dormitory settlements

People move out of the town or city altogether and commute to work with links to the town or city they have left, still making use of urban services.

Counter-urbanisation

The movement of people from an urban area into the surrounding rural region.

Urban regeneration

The investment of capital in the revival of old urban areas by either improving what is there or clearing it away and rebuilding.

Urban re-imaging

Changing the image and reputation of an urban area and the way people view it by focusing on a new identity or function and changing the quality and appearance of the built-up area.

Main factors affecting the rate of urbanisation

The speed of economic development and rate of population growth.

Economic development and urbanisation

Economic growth drives this process, and the faster the growth of secondary and tertiary employment sectors, the faster this occurs.

Rural-urban migration

The demand for labor met through natural increase or this, which is the more important source as it attracts a wider pool of people into the urban region.

Economic development in megacities

Encourages population growth, which leads to the desirability of goods and services; all act as service centres within the formal economic sector.

Economies of scale

It is cheaper to provide goods and services in one place than spread across several cities.

Multiplier effect

As a city prospers, it acts as a beacon to people and businesses encouraging inward investment and leading to more development and growth.

World/global cities

Influential cores with large peripheries that exert particular influences around the globe, considered prestigious, with status and power, and are critical hubs in the global economy.

Congestion

Rapid development leads to large-scale instances of this for people and industry, with a lack of affordable housing and high demand leading to temporary or informal settlements.

Transport in rapidly developing urban areas

Tends to be poor in quality, size, and reliability, easily overloaded and overcrowded, with high numbers of vehicles creating high levels of atmospheric pollution.

Adequate housing

There is often a lack of this, leading to people sharing housing or living in housing with no running water or sanitation.

Employment issues

Prevalent due to a lack of formal, regular employment, leading to high levels of unemployment, underemployment, self-employment, and employment in the informal sector.

Environmental Issues

Major issues include rubbish dumps, inadequate sanitation or sewage disposal, air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, and visual pollution.

Urban land values: Urban settlements

This area contains a recurring feature of a central core or central business district (CBD).

Urban Land Values

Land that has 'purpose' will be valuable and cost more to buy or rent. Usually, retail shops can make money and seek prime positions.

Zones of a city

Cities divided into these will have similar land values and locational needs such as access for customers, employees, etc. or space for expansion or privacy

Bid-rent theory

Price and demand for land change as the distance from the CBD increases; land uses will compete for desirable plots to maximise their profits.

Residential Pattern

People will live near other people who they consider the same (ethnicity, religion, occupation, etc.), creating self-organised segregation, where the largest segregation is created through personal wealth.

Social challenges in developed cities

Social services, housing, poverty and deprivation, ethnic segregation, quality of life, ageing population, tourism, and crime.

Economic challenges in developed cities

Globalisation, food supply, transport and traffic, energy supply, deindustrialisation, and service provision.

Environmental challenges in developed cities

Pollution and waste, sustainability, ecological footprint, energy, land and water, hazard risk, and green space.

Food for urban environments

Difficult, often imported from other countries, transportation costs add to the price the consumer has to pay, increases the carbon footprint of the city

Transport urban challenges

Congestion on roads due to the volume of people trying to get about the city. Causes pollution through exhaust emissions.

Water supply in a developed city

Presents a major challenge, megacity will often have a higher demand for it than it can supply.

Segregation

A tendency for people to live near others of similar backgrounds and status, can be through employment, wealth, ethnicity etc.

De-industrialisation and globalisation of Hong Kong

Hong Kong has benefitted from this because its economy is based on trade and financial services so manufacturing has never been a major part of the economy

Food supply (Hong Kong)

With very little arable land on which to farm, agriculture contributes only 0.1% of its GDP, most food is imported

Energy supply in Hong Kong

Energy supply is mostly from electricity, with about 75% generated from fossil fuel power stations (mostly coal) and approximately 25% from nuclear power, imported from China

Transport (Hong Kong)

Well-developed transport network making movement around the city relatively easy. Traffic congestion is a major issue.

Social mobility and polarisation

Reducing personal mobility makes it extremely difficult for people to move from the public to the private sector, this creates dramatic social polarization.

Penthouse slum (Hong Kong)

A new form of squatter settlement has arisen to accommodate the homeless.

'Rooftop shanty town' (Hong Kong)

People have been forced to utilize the spaces on the roofs of apartment blocks

Ecological Footprint

A major issue-large amounts of fossil fuels are burned, reclaim large amounts of land from the sea to create new space for urban growth.

Waste Disposal

Hong Kong's 7 million residents produce an estimated 6.4 million tonnes of waste a year. Dumped in landfill and land reclamation sites.

Water supply

A major issue- territory has few rivers and lakes, Groundwater sources are difficult to access.

Traffic congestion issue in developed cities and traffic congestion

Traffic congestion is a major issue in many large cities

Housing issues in emerging cities

They are increasing due to urban populations increasing causing availability and affordability to not keep up with rate of population increase which leads to building of homes on any vacant land.

Squatter settlements

A quarter of urban inhabitants live in squatter settlements

Squatter settlements typically suffer from these

Housing is made from poor-quality materials, overcrowded, small built, very close together. There is restricted access to water and electricity supplies

Issues of the informal economy

Rapidly growing populations, Job creation cannot match the pace of growth- People will often work on street corners doing informal work.

Electricity supplies in emerging cities

Electricity supplies are often inadequate and unreliable in megacities result in frequent blackouts. Contributes to low air quality and greater household fire risk.

Lack of safe water

Leads some people to drink from pools of water on the ground, conditions make it a perfect breeding ground for diseases.

Transportation

Roads were never designed to take large volumes of traffic which worsens congestion and pollution. Adds to pollution through exhaust emissions

Cycle of poverty

Creates high levels of inequality, many low-income families are 'pulled' to informal settlements in same situation.

Deprivation

Connected with poverty. It occurs when a person’s well-being falls below an acceptable minimum standard- it is more than just not having enough money

Quality of life index QLI

Looks at the availability of eight different variables:

Low quality of life

Poverty and deprivation are passed on from one generation to the next- means they cannot find well-paid employment and rely on social handouts.

Rio is

Major trading port, oil refining and shipbuilding industries that exports iron, steel and crude petroleum

Rio is

Experiences rural to urban migration in search of jobs.

Housing urban challenge in Rio

Inward migration has put pressure on services and amenities which has led to a housing shortage. Migrants begin life in the favelas.

Rio's transport urban challenge is

Limited rail services

Rio's crime increase

The rate has increased due to high unemployment rates and petty crime such as pickpocketing

Water challenges in Rio de Janiero are linked

Spreading diseases

Diseases are the main killer

Poor levels of sanitation

Land ownership kibera challenge

Government owns all the land

Changaa kibera drink

Cheap alcoholic drink. Makers are shown how to make the drink less dangerous

Kibera location

Lacks sewers and has poor levels of sanitation, making diseases the main killer.

Rural-urban fringe

Meets the built-up areas of towns and cities

Push factors (negative areas of urban centres)

Old, congested and relatively expensive. Various forms of environmental pollution – air quality is poor, and noise levels are high.

Changes along the urban fringe

Retail parks,industrial estates and science parks

Pull factors on outskirts of cities

Land is cheaper so houses are larger and have gardens

Greenfield's vs brownfield debate

There are arguments for and against each type of site.

Advantages of brownfield sites

These sites has helped revive old and disused urban areas- reduces the loss of countryside

Advantages of greenfield sites

The layout is not restricted by the existing layout -Cheaper. Valuable farmland is lost

Social sustainability

Is the need for economic and environmental factors to be managed- ensure people have a better quality of life

Benefit of urban agriculture

Women meeting and exchanging knowledge and stories.

Economic sustainability

Economic growth is supported without negatively impacting the environment, society or culture

Environmental sustainability

Where it reduces footprint

Cycling promotion

Bristol was the UK's first city to promote this.

Ecotown developments

Designed to reduce overall footprint and encourage strong community ties.

Curitiba initiative

Has dedicated bus lane to transport

Passengers can do this to pay for bus fare in brazil

Recycle plastic and glass bottles to save money

Urban managers

Local planners and politicians who want change help with any obstacles.

Stakeholders choice

National governments, international stakeholders

Numerous policy decisions made

There is a 'cost' consideration

Management of slums

Are five management options

Drastic approach to slum management

Wholesale clearance and redevelopment of squatter areas

Management skills

Self-help schemes- give people in squatter settlements the tools training to improve their homes.