AP Biology Review

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organic compounds

contain carbon; examples include lipids, proteins, and carbs

functional groups

amino (NH2), carbonyl (RCOR), carboxyl (COOH), hydroxyl (OH), phosphate (PO4), sulfhydryl (SH)

fat

glycerol and three fatty acids

saturated fats

bad for you; animals and some plants have it; solidifies at room temp.

unsaturated fats

better for you, plants have it; liquifies at room temp.

steriods

lipids whose structures resemble chicken-wire fence. include cholesterol and sex hormones

phospholipids

glycerol + 2 fatty acids + 1 phosphate group; makes up membrane bilayers of cells; hydrophobic interiors and hydrophillic exteriors

carbohydrates

used by cells for energy and stucture; monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose), storage polysaccharides (starch [plants], glycogen [animals]), structural polysaccharides (chitin [fungi], cellulose [arthropods])

proteins

made with the help of ribosomes out of amino acids; serve many functions (transport, enzymes, cell signals, receptor molecules, structural components, and channels)

enzymes

catalytic proteins that react in an induced-fit fashion with substrates to speed up that rate of reactions by lowering the activation energy

competitve inhibtion

inhibitor resembles substrate and binds to active site

noncompetitive inhibition

inhibitor binds elsewhere on the enzyme; alters active site so that the substrate cannot bind

pH

logarithmic scale;

hydrolysis

breaks down compounds by adding water

dehydration

two components brought together, producing H2O

endergonic reaction

reaction that requires input of energy

exergonic reaction

reaction that gives off energy

redox

electron transfer reactions

cell wall

found in prokaryotes and plant cells eukaryotes; protects and shapes the cell

plasma membrane

found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes; regulates what substances enter and leave a cell

ribosome

found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes; host for protein synthesis; form in nucleolus

smooth ER

found in eukaryotes; lipid synthesis, detoxification, carbohydrate metabolism; contains no ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface

rough ER

found in eukaryotes; synthesizes proteins to secrete or send to plasma membrane; contains ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface

Golgi

found in eukaryotes; modifies lipids, proteins to secrete or send to plasma membrane; contains ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface

mitochondria

found in eukaryotes; power plant of cell; hosts major energy-producing steps of respiration

lysosome

found in eukaryotes; contains enzymes that digest organic compounds; serves as cell's stomach

nucleus

found in eukaryotes; control center of cell; host for transcription, replication, and DNA

peroxisome

found in eukaryotes; breakdown of fatty acids, detoxification of alcohol

chloroplast

found in plant cells eukaryotes; site of photosynthesis in plants

cytoskeleton

found in eukaryotes; skeleton of cell; consists of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments

vacuole

large in plant cells and small in animal cells; storage vaults of cells

centrioles

found in animal cells eukaryote; part of microtubule separation apparatus that assits cell division in animal cells

fluid mosaic model

plasma membrane is selectively permeable phosolipid bilayer with proteins of various lengths and sizes interspersed with cholesterol amoung the phospholipids

integral proteins

proteins implanted within lipid bilayer of plasma membrane

diffusion

passive movement of substances down their concentration gradient (from high to low concentrations)

osmosis

passive movement of water from the side of low solute concentration to the side of high solute concentration

facilitated diffusion

assisted transport of particles across membrane (no energy input)

active transport

movement of substances against concentration gradient (low to high concentrations; requires energy input)

endocytosis

phagocytosis of particles into cell through the use of vesicles

exocytosis

process by which particles are ejected from the cell, similar to movement in a trash chute

aerobic respiration

glycolysis -> krebs cycle -> oxidative phosphorylation -> 36 ATP per glucose molecule

anaerobic respiration (fermentation)

glycolysis -> regenerate NAD+ -> 2 ATP per glucose molecule

glycolysis

conversion of 1 glucose molecule into 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH; occurs in the cytoplasma, and in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration; must have NAD+ to proceed

Krebs cycle

conversion 1 pyruvate molecule into 4 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP, H2O, and CO2; occurs twice for each glucose to yeild double the products above; occurs in the mitochondria

oxidative phosphorylation

production of large amounts of ATP from NADH and FADH2; occurs in the mitochrondria; requires the presence of oxygen to proceed

chemiosmosis

coupling of the movement of electrons down the ETC with the formation of ATP using the driving force provided by the proton gradient; occurs in both cell respiration and photosynthesis to produce ATP

ATP synthase

enzyme responsible for using protons to actually produce ATP from ADP

fermentation

process that regenerates NAD+ so glycolsis can begin again; occurs in absence of oxygen

alcohol fermentation

occurs in fungi, yeast, and bacteria; causes conversion of pyruvate to ethanol

lactic acid fermentation

occurs in humans and animal muscles; causes conversion of pyruvate -> lactate; causes cramping sensation when oxygen runs low in muscles

photosynthesis

process by which plants use the energy from light to generate sugar; occurs in chloroplasts; light reactions (thylakoid), and Calvin cycle (stroma)

autotroph

self-nourishing organism that is also known as a producer (plants)

heterotrophs

organisms that must consume other organisms to obtain energy--consmers

transpiration

loss of water via evaporation through the stomata

photophosphorylation

process by which ATP is made during light reactions

photolysis

process by which water is split into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms (light reactions)

stomata

structure through which CO2 enters a plant, and water vapor and oxygen leave plant

pigment

molcule that absorbs light of a particular wavelength (chlorophyll, carotenoid, phycobilins)

C4 plants

plants that have adapted their photosynthetic process to more efficiently handle hot and dry conditions

C4 photosynthesis

process that first converts CO2 into a 4-carbon molcule in the mesophyll cells, converts that product to malate and then shuttles it to the bundle sheath cells, where the malate releases CO2 and rubisco picks it up as if all were normal

CAM plants

plants close their stomata during the day, collect CO2 at night, and store the CO2 in the form of acids until it is needed during the day for photosynthesis

binary fission

prokaryotic cell division; double the DNA, double the size, then split apart

cell cycle

growth 1 -> synthesis -> growth 2 -> mitosis

cytokinesis

physical separation of newly formed daughter cells of cell division

cell division control mechanisms

growth factors, checkpoints, density-dependent inhibition, and cyclins and protein kinases

growth factors

factors then when present, promote growth, and when absent, impede growth

checkpoints

a cell stops growing to make sure it has the nutrients and raw materials to proceed

density-dependent inhibition

cell stops growing when certain density is reached

cyclins and protein kinases

cyclin combines with CDK to form a structure known as MPF that pushes cell into mitosis when enough is present

haploid (n)

one copy of each chromosome

diploid (2n)

two copies of each chromosome

homologous chromosomes

chromosomes that are similar in shape, size, and function

spermatogenesis

the process of male gamete formation (four sperm from one cell)

oogenesis

the process of female gamete formation (one ovum from each cell)

life cycles

sequences of events that make up the reproductive cycle of an organism

human life cycle

zygote (2n) -> multicellular orgainsm (2n) -> gametes (n) -> zygote (2n)

fungi life cycle

zygote (2n) -> multicellular orgainsm (n) -> gametes (n) -> zygote (2n)

plants life cycle

zygote (2n) -> sporophyte (2n) -> spores (n) -> gametophyte (n) -> gametes (n) -> zygote (2n)

source of variation

crossover, 2^n possible gametes that can be formed, random pairing of gametes

character

heritable feature, such as flower color

monohybrid cross

cross involving one character (3:1 phenotype ratio)

dihybrid cross

cross involving two different characters (9:3:3:1 phenotype ratio)

law of segregation

the two alleles for a trait separate during the formation of gametes--one to each gamete

law of indendent assortment

inheritance of one trait does not interfere with the inheritance of another trait

law of dominance

if two opposite pure-breeding varieties are crossed, all offspring resemble dominant parent

intermediate inheritance

heterozygous individual shows characterstics unlike either parent

incomplete dominance

Yy produces a intermediate phenotype between YY and yy

codominace

both alleles express themselves fully in a Yy individual

polygenetic traits

traits that are affected by more then one gene (eye color or skin color)

multiple alleles

traits that correspond to more than two alleles

epistasis

a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at another locus

pleiotropy

a single gene has multiple effects on an organism

sex determination

males are XY, females are XX

autosomal chromosome

chromosome not involved in gender

sex-linked traits

passed along the X chromosome; more common in males then females

X inactivation

one of two X chromosomes is randomly inactivated and remains coiled as a Barr body

holandric trait

trait that is inherited via the Y chromosome

linked genes

genes that lie along the same chromsome and do not follow the law of independent assortment

crossover

a form of genetic recombination that occurs during prophase I of meiosis