Ptolemies

Egypt - Context

• Egypt used to foreign rule, e.g., Persian rule + Alexander

• Egypt in an easily defensible position

• Nile + rivers provide multiple benefits: Fertility, Trade & communication, connections.

• Bureaucratic system inherited from the Persians: Postal services, effective taxation systems, etc.

• A rich and easy-to-rule kingdom

• Conflicts primarily with the Near East: Israel, Gaza, Jordan, etc.

Alexander and Ptolemy I

• Alexander took Egypt in 332 BCE.

• Alexander is crowned as Pharaoh, founds Alexandria, and leaves Cleomenes as governor

• Ptolemy kills Cleomenes after A.’s death

• Ptolemy was given Egypt in the meeting of the Generals and the splitting of the empire

• Stole Alexander’s corpse and had it buried in the new capital of Alexandria: Important for the legitimacy of the Ptolemies to own A.’s corpse

The Tomb of Alexander

• Identified in textual sources, but archaeological remains are underwater

• Located in the Ptolemaic palace complex

• Became an important monument: great care and attention were given to the body and tomb

• An important symbol of legitimacy

• Tomb lost at some point: potential locations associated with other religious, locations or figures in the modern World

The Tomb of Alexander - Sources

• Diodorus: Coffin made from gold, A.’s body filled with spices, chest covered with gold, laid in a purple robe with gold embroidery, design meant to honour A.’s achievements.

• Strabo: Ptolemy carries off A.'s body, places it in Alexandria, and moves the body into a glass coffin instead of gold.

The Ptolemies

• Longest reigning Egyptian dynasty

• The final Hellenistic Kingdom to fall to Rome

• Longevity is informed by multiple factors: Ease of rule, defensible positions

• The geography of Egypt made it easily defensible

• Working within Egyptian and Persian traditions of monarchy and government: Provided a model for rulership

The Ptolemies as Pharaohs

• Crowned as pharaohs in traditional Egyptian ceremonies in the temple of Ptah in Memphis, following Egyptian and Persian tradition

• Established a priesthood for A.: Calendar/ years named/ counted after the priests of A.

• Married their sisters, participated in Macedonian polygamy

• Established the cult of Pharaohs: worshipped alongside A.

• Had close relations with major temples

Religion and Legitimacy

• Ptolemies represent themselves as Pharaohs

• Pharaohs had a close association with religious practice

• Religious practice became associated with the Legitimacy of traditional Egyptian monarchs, emulated by the Ptolemies to legitimise their rule

• The gods are seen to support the Ptolemies in battle/ conflict and decide the length of their reign: Ptolemies are divinely ordained

• Ptolemaic kings presented as bringing unity to the cosmos, uniting Upper and Lower Egypt

Religion and Legitimacy - Ptolemy III

• Depicts: Ptolemy III presenting a captive to Monthu, who hands the king a ceremonial mace to execute the captive.

• Ptolemy presented as a traditional Pharaoh in this depiction

• Presented with a close relationship to the gods, emphasising piety

• Inscription written in Hieroglyphs: traditional for Egyptian religious imagery

Religion and Legitimacy - Ptolemy IV

• Depicts: Ptolemy IV and Monthu at the temple of Hathor

• Vertical Text: Monthu- “I give you the power over every other foreign land”

• Horizontal Text: Ptolemy- “Givimg wine to his father”

• Hathor = Goddess of love, music, and the realm of the dead

• Monthu = God of war

• Gods described as the father of Ptolemy: Divine origins

• Ptolemy shows piety/ service to the gods

• Shows how the gods support Ptolemaic rule and conflict: rule is divinely ordained, the gods legitimise and support Ptolemaic expansion and conflict

Religion and Legitimacy - Ptolemy VI

• Depicts: Ptolemy VI + Cleopatra II (His wife) depicted with Konshu and Horus, who inscribes on a palm leaf the length of Ptolemy VI’s rule

• Shows the king is divinely ordained

• Horus is the ruler of Lower and Upper Egypt, associating Ptolemy with this quality

• Ptolemaic kings often presented with their wives: emphasises a close connection and the role of the Queen

Religion and Legitimacy - Dual identity - Raphia Stele

• Depicts: An Egyptian scene, but the king is shown in Macedonian Greek-style cavalry wear and an Egyptian crown.

• Shows a mixture of Egyptian and Macedonian images

• Hellenistic Kings often considered Greek due to a combined Greek and Macedonian identity

• Contrasts with traditional views that separate Ptolemaic Egyptian and Macedonian identity

• Egyptians somewhat allowed kings to depict themselves as foreign kings.

Ptolemaic kings as Hellenistic Kings

• Ptolemaic kings also depicted themselves in traditional Greek styles

• Seen particularly on coinage

• Sculptors often depict Ptolemaic kings in Greek styles: Iconography often mirrors A.’s, e.g. curly hair, contrapposto gaze- looking slightly up or to the side

• Shows Greek cultural influence

• Egyptians somewhat allowed different depictions of their monarchs

• Important for legitimising the Ptolemies to Greeks within and outside their borders

• Presented as successors to A. : Important to legitimacy

Ptolemaic Queens

• Brother-sister marriages, modelled on Egyptian traditions and gods, distinguished the royal household from the general population

• Ptolemaic queens were often co-regents: either with their husbands or sons

• Role as co-regent remains unknown: the extent of political power remains highly debated

• Held an important honorary and symbolic role: As wives and mothers of the future kings

• More visible than women were previously in Greek history, with individuals recognisable, depicted in a multitude of ways

Queens and Motherhood

• Depicts: Ptolemy III suckling on Isis, Queen Arsinoe standing behind, both Isis and Arsinoe are depicted extremely similarly

• Isis = goddess of birth and rebirth, brings the new year and flooding of the Nile

• Ptolemy III presented as a divine son

• Queen Arsinoe’s role as a mother is emphasised, associated with birth, renewal and fertility (of the land and individually)

• shows how royal women could also be associated with royal ritual

• Piety and good relationships with their children were points of praise for Hellenistic royal women

Queens and Kings

• Depicts: Obv-Ptolemy I and Berenice I, Rev-Ptolemy II and Arsinoe (married)

• The dynastic nature of Ptolemaic rule emphasised

• Royal unity emphasised

• Good relations with their husbands were praised in Hellenistic royal women

• Emphasises the brother-sister marriages of the Ptolemaic kings

Queens in politics

• Epigraphic evidence suggests Hellenistic queens generally: Had their own courts, helped maintain good relations with soldiers, and participated in diplomatic affairs

• However, evidence of their participation is often sparse

Ptolemaic Queens and Warfare

• Evidence of Ptolemaic queens accompanying their Brother-husbands on campaign

• Played a key role in maintaining good relations with the king’s armies

Ptolemaic Queens and Warfare - Sources

• Polybius: Arsinoe accompanied Ptolemy IV to the battle of Raphia, helped Ptolemy address and appeal to his soldiers in the phalanx, and appears to have been close to Ptolemy throughout the battle

• Maccabees: Arsinoe accompanied Ptolemy IV to the battle of Raphia, addressed the troops directly herself, in tears, urging them to protect the women and children close to them, and promised the soldiers gold if they won the battle

• Sources show the queen’s important role in maintaining relations with the soldiers: Polybius emphasises unity with Ptolemy, Maccabees emphasise Arsinoe’s independence

• Autonomy of the Queen is different in both: Maccabees emphasise the Queen’s personal access to money

Ptolemaic Queens and Warfare - Sources

• Depicts: Bernice II as a personification of naval prowess, wearing a tunic underneath armour, an anchor broach, crowned with a ship prow and dolphins

• Ptolemaic queens associated with military prowess: purely iconography or real roles in battle/ conflict

Divine queens

• Queens and princesses are often deified after death

• Worshipped in the same ways as other goddesses

• Cults and cult images of the queens were established

War and Kingship

• Disputes over land continued throughout the Ptolemaic rule

• The primary enemy was the Seleucids for control of Syria and core resources such as timber

• Constant conflict driven by ideological and logistical reasons: Emphasise legitimacy, improve image of the king, present the king as leader or defender of the people, conflict necessary to maintain big armies, control over important regions and resources

War and Kingship - Syrian Wars

• 6 total Syrian wars

• 1) Victory for Ptolemy II - pushed into Asia Minor

• 2) Antiochus II reclaims territory in Asia Minor - war ended with a marriage alliance between Berenike II and Antiochus

• 3) Seleucid succession war results in Berenike + her sons’ deaths, Ptolemy III declares war on the new king in revenge, gains land in Syria, as far as Babylon

• 4) Resulted in the biggest battle of the Hellenistic period - Ptolemies lost territory but maintained a foothold in Syria

Temple Construction

• Ptolemaic kings emphasised their relationship with the Egyptian priesthoods, helping them be accepted as pharaohs and be presented as such

• Important for legitimising the king’s rule

• Kings also developed this relationship themselves through the construction/ repair of important temples

• Ptolemaic king continues the Pharaonic tradition of temple repair: repairs responsible for modern preservation

• Follows traditional Egyptian styles, particularly Ramses III, with no attempts to Hellenise Egyptian temples

Greek Cities in Egypt

• Greek cities maintained independence

• Didn’t have to integrate into Egyptian culture

• Resembled free city-states

• Interacted with those around them

• Maintained Greek practices

• Cities and land were given to Greeks as a reward for military service

Greek Cities in Egypt - Naucratis

• City in the Nile Delta

• Founded by Royal Decree in the 6th Cent.

• settled primarily by Greek Mercenaries w/ Permission from the Pharaoh

• Featured Greek institutions, Greek-style temples, and religion

• The first Greek city built before Alexander’s campaigns

• Served as an important harbour between Alexandria and southern Egypt

• Had its own laws and could award citizenship to its inhabitants

Greek Cities in Egypt - Ptolemais Hermaiou

• Founded by Ptolemy I

• A Greek polis settled by Greek-speaking colonists and given semi-autonomous status with its own local government

• Could award citizenship to its inhabitants: citizenship was hereditary, creating a separate class of Greek citizens in Egypt

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Greek Cities in Egypt - Alexandria

• Founded on the Med. shore on the site of a pre-existing Egyptian town, founded by Alexander - development guided by the Ptolemies

• Transformed into the Royal capital

• Famous for its library and the lighthouse of Pharos, one of the 7 ancient wonders of the world

• Library founded by Ptolemy II: housed 1000’s of scrolls from various scholars and philosophers from across the Med. - an important cultural and learning centre

• Knowledge and collection of knowledge helped legitimise the king

• A multicultural city with Greeks, Egyptians and Jewish populations living there

Life in Ptolemaic Egypt

• Individuals of Greek descent also lived outside of Greek poleis and did not have citizenship

• Intermarriage was common outside of Greek poleis, and bilingual children were common

• Greeks adopted aspects of Egyptian culture, e.g., religious and funereaty practice - Greeks would be mummified with Egyptian-style stele with Greek writing

Language and Literacy

• Greek was the official administrative language

• Greek language influenced the Egyptian language with loan words

• The Egyptian language was spoken widely outside Alexandria

• Religious texts are primarily written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, used for royal inscriptions, and demotic scripts used for funerary

• Private letters demonstrate that people with Greek names didn’t necessarily speak Greek

Religious syncretism and legitimacy

• Greek and Egyptian gods went through a process of syncretism: combining the qualities and iconography of Greek and Egyptian gods

• A key method of creating mutual understanding allowed for interaction between the two cultures

• Sepsis was the most prominent syncretised deity, with a cult possibly being founded by royal decree: featured aspects of Zeus, Poseidon, Osiris, Amun-Ra, and Hades, with his consort being Isis (a brother-sister marriage)

• Sepsis’ most important associations were with the Apis Bull and Osiris

• Became an extremely popular deity, spreading to Rome and Greece

• A figure both Egyptians and Greeks could invest in: Important for legitimising Ptolemaic rule for both Egyptians and Greeks

• e.g. Isis=Aphrodite (sun disc = cow horns), Thoth/ Anubis=Hermes (baboons), Horus=Apollo etc.

War and Conflict - The Egyptian revolt

• Egyptians revolting against Greek rule

• Rebels claimed land and set up an independent state with their own Pharaoh, driving Ptolemaic forces out of Thebes

• The new pharaoh was recognised by the priesthood at Thebes

• Other rebellions occurred in the North

• From 186, the Ptolemies reassert control

• Motivation for the rebellions remains obscured - sources simplify the series of rebellions - particularly Polybius - there is speculation that revolts were motivated by the apparent wealth

War and conflict - Succession

• Problems occurred with the succession of Ptolemy IV

• Murdered by his advisors

• Also murdered his wife Arsinoe III to prevent their son from taking the throne

• Culprits were killed when Ptolemy V ascended to the throne

War and Conflict

• After the 4th Syrian wars, Ptolemaic Egypt entered a period of decline

• The stability of Egypt is under threat

Rome

• A decline in Egypt had been happening since the battle of the Raphia in the 4th Syrian war: increased rebellions, discontent, weak kings, poor advisors etc.

• Decline possibly exaggerated by our sources - difficult to guess the true extent of the decline

• Ptolemies consistently had to deal with Rome - becoming more involved in Hellenistic conflicts - and attempted to maintain good relations with Rome through gifts

• Cleopatra and Caesar become a couple and have Caesarion

• Mark Antony assumes control of the eastern Roman provinces - begins relations with Cleopatra

• Antony and Cleopatra were defeated at the Battle of Actium - after some time, both committed suicide

• Octavian turns Egypt into a directly ruled province

Sources - The Canopus decree

• A unique source - not narrative-based: provides a window into administrative culture and the voices of individuals

• Honours Ptolemy III for Various reasons: returning stolen statues, securing grain at personal expense, supporting various religious institutions, and putting down rebellions

• Rewards the king with a new cult and caste of priests to carry out worship

• Further outlines the deification of Ptolemy’s deceased daughter and associated religious events/ practices

• Through titles and epithets, Ptolemy is presented in the traditions of Egyptian pharaohs

• Statues of the daughter mimic a style of ritual statues - deified as a goddess of virgins

• Highlights the nature of Ptolemaic kingship: its close relationship with religion/ priesthood, the king’s role to ensure prosperity, the king’s divine nature and the king’s role as a military force

• Highlights the importance of imperial women to the state ideology/propaganda, the importance of the Ptolemaic cult and the prominence of women in Hellenistic kingdoms

Sources - The Rosetta Sone

• Outlines the benefits King Ptolemy conferred on the temples and his subjects

• Highlights the divine nature of the king as a god, from a god, son of Isis and Osiris

• Highlights the king’s piety - sighting his benefactions of money and grain to various temples

• Ptolemy rewarded with increased honours

• Highlights the divine nature of Ptolemaic kings

• Emphasises the king’s religious duties and role as a priest, important for legitimising their claim to the throne

Sources - Coins of Berenike II

• Coins appear to have been minted with the authority of Berenike

• Berenike is also seemingly depicted on the obverse of the coin

• Some take this as evidence of Berenike’s authority and power as queen

• However, others attribute the coin to a depiction of Berenike I, issued by her son, meant to reinforce dynastic ties

• Others suggest that an appearance on a coin doesn’t correlate with whose authority it was minted with

• Leaves a conflicting impression of the limits/ extents of the queen’s authority in Ptolemaic Egypt

Administration - setting the scene

• Inherited administrative systems from Persia: including a postal service, forms of taxation etc.

• Persian administration was paired with new developments to improve the economic activity of Egypt e.g. staging posts for transporting people/ armies and goods

• Wealth primarily based on Egypt’s agricultural capabilities

• Friends and family of the king made up key admin. roles

• Integrated both Greek and Egyptian administrative classes

• Egypt’s religious practices made integration of Greeks easier

• Foundation for administration was literature

Administration - Systems

• Succession based on familial generations - a smooth system - though sometimes faced succession difficulties

• Main admi. concerns were: defence, revenue, control combined with cultural concerns of a mixed population

• System of land reward was established for Greek and later Egyptian infantry - securing loyalty of the army

• New crops introduced to increase revenue - particularly cash crops e.g. olive and vines

• Greeks and Egyptians both participated in admin - evidence by the use of Demotic and Greek scripts + poor Greek from Egyptian writers

• Retained support from Egyptian population by respecting traditional laws and courts

• Potentially introduces a policy of Hellenization - Greek literature privilege’s, Greek schooling encouraged, common for Egyptian to adopt Greek names (a common reaction to relate to new controlling powers

Administration - Taxes

• A monetarised tax system was introduced

• The majority of land (royal land) was subject to rent and taxation

• Private land owned by temples still owed royal taxes

• Land survey were carried out to estimate potential revenues

• Greek financial systems were integrated into pre-existing Egyptian/ Persian ones

Temples

• Temples were major land-holders with developed economic institutions and centres of cult

• The pharaoh traditionally formed a key link between the gods and the people

• Maintaining good relations with the temple was therefore essential for the Ptolemies

• Ptolemies allowed temples to administer themselves - withing an overarching framework f royal administration

• Ptolemies often invested in restring temples

• High priests would be buried alongside the Ptolemaic rulers

• The king would actively participate in traditional religious festivals in person

The Ptolemaic monarchy

• Egypt the most subject to monarchic rule - with only three major Greek/ independent cities

• The kings physical presence was important to the people of Egypt - kings regularly participated in traditional public religious festivals

• Ptolemaic monarchy also had a Greek foundation: Ptolemy I studied Greek literature on kingship, utilised similar hierarchical titles of friendship to Macedonian and other Hellenistic kingdoms

• Image as a pharaoh was also important - Ptolemies adopted epithets that carried divine connotations

• Introduced a dynastic cult - Primarily based on Greek dynastic cults

• Members of the dynasty would also be deified - in line with traditional Egyptian religion

• Royal names became limited to high ranking positions

• The kings presented as divine in nature - embedding them in Egyptian society as priests, kings and gods

Ptolemies - Medicine

• Ptolemy I supported the study of medicine

• Founded a school of medicine alongside the library and museum at Alexandria

• Discoveries made vis dissection and vivisection

• Produces two notable doctors: Praxargos of Kos - Discoveries related to the heart and blood + Herophilos of Chalcedon - Discovered nerves, studies the pulse, pioneered dissections