Sociology Final

Social Inequality

Unequal distribution of social goods like money, power, and status

Equality of Opportunity

Equal chances initially, but varying outcomes due to luck or skill

Equality of Condition

Altering situations to compensate for inequalities in starting positions

Equality of Outcome

Everyone having the same resources regardless of fairness

Stratification

System categorizing people into a hierarchy based on factors like race, gender, education, income

Social Class

Group sharing similar economic position based on income, wealth, education, occupation

Income

Money earned from work or investments, not accounting for wealth

Wealth

Total amount of money one possesses, different from income

Social Mobility

Movement between different positions in a social stratification system

Meritocracy

Status and mobility based on individual attributes, ability, and achievement

Poverty

Severe deprivation due to economic circumstances

Absolute Poverty

Household income below the level needed for basic sustenance

Relative Poverty

Poverty based on median income in a specific location

GINI Coefficient

Measure of inequality ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (complete inequality)

AFDC

Aid program for families with dependent children, providing cash welfare

TANF

Temporary assistance for needy families, state-administered financial aid

SNAP

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, federal food purchasing assistance

EITC

Earned Income Tax Credit, reducing taxes for low to moderate-income families

Medicaid and CHIP

Health insurance programs for low-income individuals and children

Housing Assistance

Public housing and Section 8 vouchers for non-government housing

Child Tax Credit Expansion

Refers to a policy that, if renewed, could have prevented 3 million children from being in poverty in 2022.

Eviction Epidemic

Particularly prominent in the United States during the pandemic, leading to lasting negative consequences for renters.

Poverty and Children

Around 20 out of every 100 children in the US live in households below the poverty line, impacting their development and well-being.

Gender Norms

Socially defined behaviors assigned to specific sex categories, influencing expectations and roles within society.

Hegemonic Masculinity

A social organization where men hold dominance and privilege, shaping societal norms and expectations.

Intersectionality

Understanding social inequality based on intersecting identities like race, class, gender, and how they impact individuals and populations.

Motherhood Penalty

The discrimination and wage gap faced by mothers in the workforce, leading to lower salaries and reduced opportunities.

Glass Ceiling

An invisible barrier preventing women from advancing to higher positions in the workplace, hindering their career growth.

Transgender Health

Transgender individuals face higher rates of physical and mental health issues, discrimination, and challenges in accessing healthcare.

Essentialist Arguments

Explanations of social phenomena based on natural or biological determinism, often used to justify gender roles and norms.

Matrix of domination

The intersecting domains of oppression that create a social space of domination and a unique position within that space based on someone’s intersectional identity along multiple dimensions like gender, age, race, class, sexuality, and location.

Sexism

Occurs when a person’s sex or gender is the basis for judgment, discrimination, or other differential treatment against that person.

Sexual harassment

An illegal form of discrimination revolving around sexuality, ranging from inappropriate jokes to sexual "barter" to outright sexual assault.

Glass ceiling

An invisible limit on women's climb up the occupational ladder.

Glass escalator

The accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization, especially in feminized jobs.

Bisexual

An individual who is sexually attracted to both genders/sexes.

Homosexual

The social identity of a person who has sexual attraction to and/or relations with people of the same sex.

Heteronormativity

The idea that heterosexuality is the default or normal sexual orientation from which other sexualities deviate.

Sexual orientation

Describing one's physical and emotional attraction to others, using socially constructed labels like gay, lesbian, heterosexual, bisexual, pansexual, asexual.

Racialization

The formation of new racial identities by creating ideological boundaries of difference around groups of people.

Gentrification

A shift in a community's population, bringing in more affluent residents, often leading to cultural and income displacement.

Institutional Racism

Racial biases embedded in core institutions, perpetuating racial inequality through historical and contemporary practices.

Implicit Bias

Unconscious associations influencing perceptions, with explicit bias being consciously aware, and prejudice being preconceived beliefs about a group.

Discrimination

Unjust treatment of different groups, encompassing actions and inactions, leading to health risks like depression and cardiovascular diseases.

Vigilance

Preparation for discrimination, involving anticipating insults, being cautious about appearance, and avoiding certain situations.

Social Construction of Health

The concept that health and illness are socially constructed, influenced by norms, interactions, and societal values.

Sick Role

Rights and responsibilities of individuals with a legitimate illness, including exemption from social roles and seeking medical advice.

Fundamental Cause Theory

Social status determining health outcomes, influencing multiple risk factors and diseases, persisting across time periods.

Stigma

Negative social labels altering behavior and self-concept, affecting well-being, especially in conditions like addiction and STIs.

Health Disparities

Differences in health due to unfair social forces, studied through socioeconomic status, race, gender, and other factors.

Social Determinants of Health

Historical and contemporary social, economic, and political factors that influence health patterns.

Upstream Determinants

Macro-level social contexts and forces like social policies and culture that impact health.

Downstream Determinants

Health behaviors and outcomes influenced by social factors.

Racial Bias

Prejudice affecting algorithms guiding healthcare, leading to disparities in treatment.

Mental Health Disparities

Gender differences in seeking mental health care and treatment.

Social Institutions

Interdependent positions shaping social roles and rules in society.

Health Care Systems

Organizations delivering and funding healthcare services.

Universal Health Care

Ensuring affordable access to medical services for all individuals.

Affordable Care Act (ACA)

Legislation addressing issues in the US health insurance market.

Power and Authority

The ability to exert influence over others and the legitimate right to exercise power.

Bureaucracy

System characterized by specialization, hierarchy, and impersonality.

Democracy

System where power lies with the people who can participate in the political process.

Disenfranchised Felons

Individuals who have lost the right to vote due to a felony conviction

Civic Life

Involves the belief in the potential impact of institutions on society and the world

Civic Voluntarism Model

Focuses on individual motivation, ability to participate, political orientation, and mobilization efforts in civic engagement

Legal and Procedural Barriers

Obstacles such as transportation, childcare, time constraints, and ID requirements that hinder disadvantaged communities' access to voting

Family as a Social Institution

Provides resources like social networks, money, emotional support, transportation, education, religion, food, shelter, and care

Kinship Systems

Rules defining family membership, naming different family types, and setting expectations for family interactions

Endogamy

Marriage within one's social group

Exogamy

Marriage outside one's social group

Nuclear Family

Consists of a father, mother, and their children

Blended Family

Includes step-parents, step-siblings, or half-siblings in the family structure

Breadwinner-homemaker model

Gendered labor arrangement where one partner works outside the home while the other manages housework and childcare.

Dual earner arrangement

Both partners have wage-earning jobs.

The Second Shift

Unpaid household labor expected of women after paid work.

Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993

Allows unpaid, job-protected leave for family and medical reasons.

Social Capital

Benefits from higher SES peers and parental involvement.

Cultural Capital

Social norms around college attendance influenced by parental background.

Sociology of Religion

Study of religion as a social institution, not theology.

Religious Beliefs

Shape social behavior by setting expectations and guiding actions.

Secularism

Movement away from religious beliefs towards a rational, scientific orientation.

Pluralism

Coexistence of distinct religious groups in society.

Economic Sociology

Studies social and institutional aspects of economic behaviors.

Capitalism

Economic system with private risk, profit, and decentralized control.

Marx's Theory of Alienation

Workers alienated from product, process, others, and themselves.

Demographic Transition

Theory explaining population changes in stages from high to low growth.

Age effects

Variations linked to a person’s biological age

Period effects

Result from external factors affecting all age groups at a specific time

Cohort effects

Result from unique experiences of a group over time

Functionalist perspective

Role of older adults in society

Disengagement theory

Withdrawal from social relationships

Activity theory

Older adults seek new roles for social activity

Continuity theory

Older adults maintain equilibrium in social lives

Conflict perspective

Older adults in competition with other age groups

Symbolic interactionist perspective

Everyday interactions shape older adults’ identities

Collective action

Collaborative effort diverging from social norms

Crowd collective action

Face-to-face protests, strikes, riots

Mass collective action

Boycotts, hashtags, writing to officials

Contagion theory

Collective action due to conformity

Convergence theory

Collective action by like-minded individuals