Chapter 2: Psychological Research (OpenStax)

Flashcards covering key concepts from Chapter 2: Psychological Research, including the scientific method, research designs, data analysis, ethics, and validity.

What is empirical research?

Research grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

Why is psychology considered a science?

Because research is required to verify findings and provide verification and support for conclusions.

What mistake do some advertising campaigns make about 'scientific evidence' claims?

They may be based on belief or rhetoric rather than solid evidence.

What questions should you ask to think critically about a claim?

What is the claimant’s expertise, what might they gain if valid, is the claim justified by the evidence, and what do other researchers think?

What is deductive reasoning?

Predictions are made based on a general premise.

What is an example of deductive reasoning?

All living things require energy to survive; ducks are living things; therefore ducks require energy to survive.

What is inductive reasoning?

Conclusions are drawn from observations.

What is an example of inductive reasoning?

Seeing many fruit growing on trees and assuming all fruit grows on trees.

How do scientists typically use deductive and inductive reasoning in the scientific method?

Ideas/theories are formed through deductive reasoning, hypotheses are tested empirically, and conclusions are drawn inductively to form new theories.

What is a theory in psychology?

A well-developed set of ideas that explain observed phenomena.

What is a hypothesis?

A tentative, testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables; usually an if-then statement and falsifiable.

How do theories and hypotheses relate in the scientific method?

Theories generate hypotheses; hypotheses are tested; results lead to theory modification or development of new hypotheses.

Why have some Freudian specifics fallen out of favor?

Because many aspects are not falsifiable.

What lasting contribution did Freud make to psychology?

The idea of unconscious processes influencing behavior.

Name five approaches to psychological research.

Clinical/case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, archival research, longitudinal and cross-sectional research.

What is a key advantage of clinical or case studies?

Provides in-depth insight into a single, often unique, case.

What is a limitation of clinical or case studies?

Results may not generalize to the larger population.

What is naturalistic observation?

Observing behavior in its natural setting without manipulation.

What is observer bias?

Observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations.

How can observer bias be reduced?

Establish clear observation criteria, train observers, and use multiple observers when possible.

Who is a famous figure associated with naturalistic observation of chimpanzees?

Jane Goodall.

What is a survey?

A method of gathering data from a sample through questions, administered in various formats.

What are common survey administration methods?

Paper-and-pencil, electronic, and verbal formats.

What is archival research?

Using past records or data sets to answer research questions or identify patterns.

What is longitudinal research?

Studies the same group repeatedly over an extended period of time.

What is cross-sectional research?

Compares multiple segments of a population at a single point in time.

What is attrition in longitudinal studies?

The loss of participants over time.

What is correlational research?

Examines relationships between two or more variables; correlation does not imply causation.

What does a scatterplot show in correlational research?

The strength and direction of the relationship between variables.

What does the correlation coefficient indicate?

The strength and direction of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1.

What is a positive correlation?

Two variables move in the same direction (both increase or both decrease).

What is a negative correlation?

Two variables move in opposite directions (one increases, the other decreases).

Why doesn’t correlation equal causation?

Because a third variable or other factors (confounding variables) could be responsible for the observed relationship.

What is a confounding variable?

An outside factor that affects both variables, potentially creating a false impression of a causal relationship.

What is an illusory correlation?

Perceiving a relationship between two things when no such relationship exists.

What is confirmation bias?

Tendency to favor evidence that supports preconceptions while ignoring contrary evidence.

What is the goal of experiments in establishing causality?

To determine a cause-and-effect relationship between variables through controlled manipulation and random assignment.

What is an experimental hypothesis?

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables, derived from prior research or observation.

What is an operational definition?

A precise description of how variables will be measured and manipulated.

What is the difference between an experimental group and a control group?

Experimental group experiences the manipulation; control group does not.

What is an independent variable?

The variable that the experimenter manipulates; ideally the only major difference between groups.

What is a dependent variable?

The variable measured to assess the effect of the manipulation.

What is random assignment?

An assignment method where each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group.

What is a quasi-experimental design?

A design where random assignment or manipulation of the independent variable is not possible (e.g., sex as a variable).

Why are some questions not suitable for experimental design due to ethics?

Because certain topics (like abuse) cannot be ethically manipulated or assigned, requiring alternative methods.

What does statistical significance (p ≤ 0.05) mean in psychology?

The odds that observed differences are due to chance are 5% or less.

What is a peer-reviewed journal article?

An article reviewed by other scientists for quality before publication.

What is replication in research?

Repeating a study or adding measures to verify the original findings.

What is the vaccine-autism controversy a cautionary example of?

How preliminary findings can be disseminated and later retracted, highlighting issues in research integrity.

What is reliability in research?

Consistency and reproducibility of results across measurements and observers.

What is inter-rater reliability?

The level of agreement among observers recording the same event.

What is validity in research?

The accuracy of a measurement—whether it measures what it is intended to measure.

Is reliability alone enough to ensure validity?

No; a measure can be reliable without being valid, though valid measures are always reliable.

What is the IRB?

Institutional Review Board; reviews research proposals involving human participants to ensure ethics.

What should informed consent include?

Potential risks, implications, voluntary participation, and confidentiality of data.

What is deception in research, and what follows it?

Purposely misleading participants to prevent bias; debriefing provides complete information after the study.

What does the Tuskegee Syphilis Study illustrate about research ethics?

A severe ethical violation: lack of informed consent and withholding treatment.

What is the IACUC?

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee; oversees research involving non-human animals.

Why are animals used in research, and what ethics guide this practice?

Because animals share basic biological processes with humans; research aims to minimize pain and distress when possible.

What percentage of psychological animal research uses rodents or birds?

About 90%.

Why must researchers minimize pain or distress in animal research?

To adhere to ethical standards and humane treatment while enabling valid science.