rome type shift

Tacitus

Roman historian and orator known for his critical and detailed accounts of the Roman Empire, particularly its first century. His most famous works are the Annals, which covers the Julio-Claudian emperors from 14 to 68 CE, and the Histories, which covers 69 to 96 CE. He is considered one of the greatest Roman historians, praised for his eloquent and concise Latin prose and his moralistic, often cynical, analysis of power and corruption

Opening lines of the Aeneid

“I sing about the arms and the man (Aeneas), who, driven from the coast of Troy by Fate, came to the shore of Italy…and brought along his gods.”

Last King of Rome

Tarquinius Superbus

First King of Rome

Romulus

Mythical Origins

(ca 1200-753 BCE)

Monarchy

673-509 BCE

Republic

509-27 BCE

Principate (Empire)

27 BCE-476 CE (West)

Trojan King

Priam

Achilles’ son

Neoptolemus

Aeneas’ father

Anchises

Aeneas’ son

Ascanius (Julus)

Aeneas’ previous wife

Creusa

Aeneas’ mother

Aphrodite

King Latinus

King of the Latins in ancient Roman mythology. His daughter, Lavinia, married Aeneas and he becomes the new King of Latinus.

Seven Hills of Rome

Quirinal, Viminal, Capitoline, Esquiline, Caelian, Palatine, and Aventine

Augury

Divine signs through birds. Remus and Romulus used this when settling on which hills to call Rome

Romulus and Remus Lore

Livy’s Ab Urbe Condita (“From the Founding of the City”), originally over 140 books, offers a semi-historical account of Rome’s origins. He recounts that the war god Mars impregnated Rhea Silvia, a Vestal Virgin—though Livy suggests she may have claimed divine conception to avoid punishment. Her twin sons, Romulus and Remus, were ordered drowned in the Tiber by a suspicious king. Instead, the river god protected them, and a she-wolf (lupa, also meaning “prostitute”) nursed them until the shepherd Faustulus and his wife Larentia took them in. Livy hints Larentia’s nickname may explain the wolf symbolism.

Republic Political Structure

Power was governed by two annually elected Consuls, advised by the Senate.

Struggle of the Orders

The conflict between the aristocratic Patricians and the common Plebeians led to crucial developments:

The creation of the Tribune of the Plebs to protect plebeian interests.

287 BCE: Plebiscites (laws passed by the Plebeian Assembly) gained the force of law binding all Roman citizens, formally ending the Struggle of the Orders.

Expansion of Republic

The Punic wars were the main events that resulted in the expansion of the early republic

Punic War 1

(264–241 BCE): Fought primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters, and also in North Africa. After immense losses on both sides, the Carthaginians were defeated and Rome gained territory from Carthage.

Punic War 2

(218–201 BCE) Major conflict between Rome and Carthage, primarily fought in Italy, Spain, and Africa, and concluding with a Roman victory. The war is famous for the Carthaginian general Hannibal's invasion of Italy, which included his legendary crossing of the Alps, and devastating Roman defeats like the Battle of Cannae. The conflict ended when Roman general Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama, leading to Carthage ceding its territories and paying a heavy indemnity to Rome.

Punic War 3

(149–146 BC) was the final conflict between Rome and Carthage, ending with the complete destruction of Carthage. The war was initiated by Rome, largely due to the influence of figures like Cato the Censor who feared a Carthaginian revival, and was sparked by Carthage's conflict with Numidia, a Roman ally. After a protracted siege, Roman forces under Scipio Aemilianus eventually took the city, enslaved its population, and established Roman rule over the territory as the province of Africa. 

Gracchi Brothers

They wanted to introduce land reform and other populist legislation in ancient Rome. They are considered the founding fathers of both socialism and populism. They attempted land reform and were killed, marking the beginning of political violence.

What are the Gracchi Brothers known for

Their reforms focused on redistributing public land to the poor and providing subsidized grain, and they became prominent figures for advocating the rights of the common people against the elite Senate

senatus consultum ultimum

“Final Decree of the Senate” a warning to the consuls that the state was at risk and that the senate supported whatever actions they might take to save the Republic.

Gaius Marius

Roman general and politician known for his military reforms, which professionalized the Roman army by changing it from a citizen militia to a standing force.

Sulla

Roman general and statesman known for being the first Roman general to march on Rome and seize power in a civil war, becoming dictator from 82 to 79 BCE. He is infamous for his ruthless proscriptions (politically motivated executions) and for enacting constitutional reforms to strengthen the Senate and curb the power of tribunes. He voluntarily resigned his dictatorship before his death, setting a unique precedent. Also Gaius Marius’ rival.

Cursus Honorum

"course of honors" and refers to the sequential path of public offices held by aspiring politicians in ancient Rome. Quaestor —> Aedile —> Praestor —> Consul

Quaestor

Officials who had charge of public revenue and expenditure.

Aedile

An office with various administrative duties, such as overseeing public buildings, games, and markets.

Praetor

This position primarily handled legal matters, but also could lead to military command.

Consul

The highest office, with two consuls elected annually to serve as the chief executives of the Roman Republic. 

First Triumvirate

Comprised of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. This alliance was formed to bypass the Senate, with Crassus providing immense wealth, Pompey military connections, and Caesar popularity and oratory skills. Their combined influence was used to pass legislation, secure powerful positions, and fundamentally alter Rome's political landscape, though jealousy eventually led to the alliance's collapse

Social War

(91-88 BCE): Many Italian allies who had fought alongside Rome for centuries were denied the privileges of Roman citizenship, leading to growing resentment

Lex Julia

A political concession passed in 90 BCE. Through this law, Roman citizenship was granted to allied communities that either had not joined the revolt or had joined but were willing to lay down their arms.

Julius Caesar

Offered his immense popularity and his skills as an orator to the first triumvirate. He’s kno
wn for his military command, which included conquering Gaul; his political career, which culminated in becoming dictator for life; and his pivotal role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire

Pompey

Contributed his military connections and reputation to the first triumvirate. He rose to exceptional prominence in the 70s BCE by helping suppress piracy, confronting Mithridates in the East, and crushing several revolts, including Spartacus’s slave uprising. In 67 BCE, a tribunician plebiscite granted Pompey extraordinary powers to end Mediterranean piracy and, the following year, to defeat Mithridates and settle affairs in the East.

Crassus

Brought his vast wealth to the first triumvirate

Caesar's Rise and Fall

Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BCE starting a civil war. He was assassinated on the Ides of March (44 BCE). Julius Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators, led by Brutus and Cassius, who feared his increasing power and believed he was on the verge of ending the Roman Republic to establish a monarchy.

Second Triumvirate

(43 BCE) A formal, legal alliance between Octavian (Augustus), Marc Antony, and Lepidus. It was created to restore order to the republic after Caesar’s assassination, and divide provinces amongst them.

Marc Antony

Ruled the East. He is famous for his military career under Julius Caesar, his alliance with Cleopatra, and his ultimate defeat by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the civil wars that led to the formation of the Roman Empire.

Lepidus

Was in charge of Gaul and the Spanish provinces. Served as the last pontifex maximus before the Roman Empire was established. Though initially powerful, he was gradually sidelined by his partners and eventually exiled by Octavian after trying to seize control of Sicily.

Octavian (Augustus)

After defeating his rival Mark Antony, Augustus became the sole ruler of Rome and established the Principate system of government, which concealed his autocracy behind the appearance of a revived republic.

Battle of Actium

(Sept 2, 31 BC): Known as the final clash of the Roman civil wars, it ended with Octavian’s decisive naval victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra. This turning point brought down the Roman Republic, ushered in the Roman Empire under Augustus, and led to Egypt’s annexation and the fall of Antony and Cleopatra

Pontifex Maximus

Chief high priest of the college of pontiffs in ancient Rome and the highest-ranking religious official in the Roman state religion.

Julio-Claudians

(14–68 CE): Included Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, ending in Nero's suicide.

Year of the Four Emperors

(68–69 CE): A brief period of civil war and instability.

Flavians

(69–96 CE): Restored stability; built the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre). The dynasty consisted of three emperors: Vespasian, his son Titus, and his younger son Domitian

Vespasian

Known for restoring political stability to the Roman Empire after a period of civil war, founding the Flavian dynasty, and initiating major public works projects like the Colosseum. He is also recognized for his fiscal reforms, which included unconventional tax collection methods, and for his military career which included suppressing the Jewish rebellion.

Titus

Best known for completing the Colosseum, overseeing disaster relief after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius and a fire in Rome, and his military role in conquering Jerusalem during the First Jewish Revolt. His short reign as emperor (79-81 AD) is remembered for being popular due to his generosity, public works, and lavish games, earning him the nickname "Delight of Mankind".

Domitian

Roman Emperor known for his autocratic rule, extensive public works, and significant military campaigns. His reign (AD 81–96) is remembered for both effective, though harsh, administration and brutal paranoia, which led him to execute senators and others who opposed him, ultimately culminating in his assassination by court officials. Last of the Flavian Dynasty

Five Good Emperors

(96–192 CE): A period of peace and prosperity. This period is known for its prosperity and stability, largely because the emperors were chosen based on merit through adoption rather than hereditary succession. Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius

Nerva

(reigned 96–98 CE): Became emperor after the assassination of Domitian and helped prevent civil war by adopting Trajan as his successor.

Trajan

(reigned 98–117 CE): Expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent.

Hadrian

(reigned 117–138 CE): Known for consolidating and securing the empire's borders, such as by building Hadrian's Wall in Britain and rebuilding the Pantheon

Antoninus Pius

(reigned 138–161 CE): Presided over a period of relative peace and stability.

Marcus Aurelius

(reigned 161–180 CE): A Stoic philosopher who governed during a time of conflict and was the last of the "good" emperors before the decline began with his son, Commodus.

The Crisis of the Third Century/Military Anarchy or Imperial Crisis

(235–284 CE) a period in Roman history when the empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of civil war, foreign invasions, plague, and economic depression

Diocletian

Known for stabilizing the Roman Empire through administrative, military, and economic reforms, most notably by establishing the Tetrarchy, a system where four rulers governed the empire. He is also famous for restoring order after the Crisis of the Third Century, overseeing the last major persecution of Christians before the religion was legalized, and being the first Roman emperor to abdicate the throne.

Tetrarchy

(293–313 CE): Established by Diocletian to stabilize the empire by dividing rule among four men (Diocletian: Ruled in the East. Maximian: Ruled in the West. Galerius: Succeeded Diocletian in the East. Constantius: Succeeded Maximian in the West. Diocletian: Ruled in the East. Maximian: Ruled in the West. Galerius: Succeeded Diocletian in the East. Constantius: Succeeded Maximian in the West.)

Constantine

Known for converting to Christianity, halting the persecution of Christians, founding the city of Constantinople, and reorganizing the Roman Empire. His acceptance of Christianity was a pivotal moment, leading to its rise to prominence within the empire and the subsequent Christianization of the Roman Empire. He moved the capital to Constantinople, a new city that became the center of power for over a thousand years.

Edict of Milan

(313 CE) decriminalized Christianity and ended its persecution in the Roman Empire.

Battle of the Milvian Bridge

(28 October 312 CE) The Battle of the Milvian Bridge took place between the Roman Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius. The battle gave Constantine undisputed control of the western half of the Roman Empire

Theodosius I

Was Roman emperor from 379 to 395. He won two civil wars and was instrumental in establishing the Nicene Creed as the orthodox doctrine for Nicene Christianity. Christianity became the state religion in 380 CE. Ro

Barbarian Pressure 

Ca. 350 CE, the expansion of the Huns drove millions of peoples (like the Visigoths) west, putting immense pressure on the Roman borders.

Sacking of Rome

Alaric and the Visigoths sacked Rome in 410 CE.

Attila and the Huns

Attila was persuaded by Pope Leo I to leave Italy.

The Vandals

The Vandals attacked Rome; Pope Leo I negotiated with them for a gentler invasion. On September 4, 476 CE, the last Western Roman Emperor, the child Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the barbarian general Odoacer, who installed himself as the King of Italy.

Paterfamilias

The senior male head of the household, possessing Patria

Potestas

(fatherly power), the legal authority over all descendants and slaves, including control over their property and, theoretically, the power of life and death.

Cum manu

The wife was legally transferred into her husband's family's control (less common later).

Sine manu

The wife remained legally under her paterfamilias's control, allowing her to retain her own property rights (common in the Empire).

Chattel

Property. Slaves were legally considered chattel and were "socially dead," lacking rights to family or legal relationships.

Liberti

Freedmen. Slaves who were manumitted (freed). They gained citizenship but still owed labor services (operae) to their former masters.

Legions

The heavy infantry, composed of Roman citizens. Service was for approximately 20 years.

Auxiliaries

Non-citizen troops who provided specialized skills (e.g., cavalry, archery) and were rewarded with Roman citizenship upon retirement.

pozzolana

The key Roman technological advancement. It was a durable material using volcanic ash that could set underwater. It enabled the large-scale construction of arches, vaults, and domes.

Aqueducts

Had both a utilitarian role (supplying baths, fountains, and homes) and a cultural role (demonstrating Roman wealth and control over nature). Pont du Gard is a famous example that is still standing

Roads (viae)

The extensive network of roads (e.g., Via Appia) totaled over 120,000 km, primarily serving to facilitate troop movement and later, trade.

Verism

A Republican style of portraiture that emphasized old age, wrinkles, and physical flaws, meant to convey wisdom, experience, and authority (virtus).

Pax Romana

Adopted and established by Augustus, this was a roughly 200-year-long period of ancient Rome that is identified as a golden age of increased and sustained Roman imperialism, prosperous stability, hegemonic power, regional expansion, and relative peace and order

Ludi 

Were public games sponsored by the state for religious or civic festivals

Munera

Privately funded games, initially held as funeral tributes to a deceased Roman magnate

Orthopraxy

Roman state religion focused on correct ritual practice and behavior rather than strict belief (orthodoxy)

Pax Deorum

(Peace of the Gods). The goal of religious practice is to maintain a harmonious relationship with the gods through correct rituals, prayers, and animal sacrifice.

Imperial Cult

The deification and worship of deceased emperors (and sometimes living ones), which served as a crucial tool for securing loyalty across the diverse empire. E.g. Julius Caesar, Augustus, Tiberius, and Vespasian

Exercitus

Army

Milites

Infantrymen

Equites

Cavalrymen. Had many individuals from nearby areas Romans had conquered — made eligible individuals from those areas part of army

Sagitarii

Syrian archers in Roman Army

Funditories

Slung stones — supporter role

Praetorians

Emperors guards (organized by Emp. Augustus - broken up by Emp. Constantine) — problem was that they became very. powerful and kept killing the emperor they were met to be guarding (e.x. assassination of Caligula

Trajans Column

Commemorates Roman Emperor Traians' victory in the Dacian war — includes legionaries of milites and inscriptions prasing

Glandes Plumbae

Lead aeorns, used by the funditories and slung at opposition, very high damage rate surprisingly

Castra

Camps built by Roman soldiers for one night - prolonged stay in area of dev. or enemy territory. Slowly developed into towns (in Britain today.

Deracination

The act of uprooting individuals from their homes + redistributing to diff. areas, dehumanizing them (legally), removing their hames, and selling them at slave markets (stataria and venilicia)

Latifundia

Plantations. Most slaves were forced to work on these

Number of slaves during Trajan’s rule

Approx: 5-8 million enslaved people throughout with a need for 500,000 per year