HIS 338 Final

The Roman Empire from Caesar's assassination to the fall of the Western Empire

Civil war between Pompey and Caesar

• decisive win by caesar

• marks end of republic by paving way for caesar’s dictatorship

• worsens factionalism

“Dictator in perpetuity” / “Perpetual dictator”

• confirms that republic is dead and caesar now has sole power

• people hate the way he is dictator, his tendency to grant clemency means he leaves his enemies alive

• finally provokes senators to kill him, want to hold on to power

Assassination of Caesar

• people hate the way he is dictator, his tendency to grant clemency means he leaves his enemies alive

• finally provokes senators to kill him, want to hold on to power

• political violence of late republic

• senators refused to place caesar’s personal interest above that of everyone else

The “Liberators” (Brutus and Cassius); “Liberators’ Civil War”

• Liberators: Caesar’s assassins

• See themselves as having saved Rome from a tyrant

• Public turns on them after assassination, they flee

• 2nd triumvirate forms to go after liberators

• Defeated so badly by Mark Antony and Octavian that they kill themselves

  • End of Republican cause

• Ides of March coin, freedman’s cap representing liberty

Mark Antony

• Caesar’s co-consul, rises to prominence after assassination

• Part of second triumvirate, rival of Octavian

• Divided rule: Antony in East and Octavian in West, struggle for sole power

• Octavian paints Antony as non-Roman because of his ties to Eastern allies, including Cleopatra

• Defeated at Actium, flees to Egypt, kills self

Lepidus

• Member of second triumvirate

• Tries to displace Octavian after Sextus Pompey defeated

  • Exiled

• Without third member, second triumvirate cannot stand

Gaius Octavius → Octavian

• Caesar’s grandnephew

  • adopted posthumously, takes name Octavian

• Member of second triumvirate

• With triumvirate, goes after opponents, wants to avenge caesar

• Rivals with Mark Antony

  • Paints him as non-Roman because of connections with Eastern allies in order to reduce appearance of civil war

  • Antony’s relationship with Cleopatra dishonors Octavian

• Eliminates Lepidus and Mark Antony, becomes sole major figure

• Closes doors of Temple of Janus, representing state of peace between rome and the world

Second Triumvirate

• Starts as private negotiation, but unlike first, later formally ratified by law

• Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus

• Extensive powers, few checks

• Priority is to pursue and punish assassins

• Go after opponents and rivals

• Brutus and Cassius still control east, where most wealth is

Triumviri reipublicae constituendae (“triumvirs for the restoration of the state”)

• From ratification of second triumvirate

• extensive powers, few checks

• Priority is to pursue and punish assassins

Deification of Caesar

• Deified by senate

• Elevates Octavian’s status as “son of a god”

• set stage for deifying emperors, divine legitimacy

divi filius (“son of a god”)

• status of Octavian after deification of Caesar

• Gives him more prestige and authority

• Gives him more right to eventually claim sole power and rule as princeps

Battle of Philippi

• Antony and Octavian meet Brutus and Cassius

• Brutus and Cassius eventually commit suicide

• End of Republican cause

• Avenged Caesar’s assassination

Perusine War (rebellion of Lucius Antonius and Marcus Antonius’ wife, Fulvia)

• Brief rebellion suppressed by second triumvirate

• Eventually led to reconciliation between Antony and Octavian

Sextus Pompey (son of Pompey the Great)

• Son of Pompey the Great

• Octavian divorces his relative, offends him

• Consul Agrippa defeats him, he flees to Asia Minor and is executed

• His defeat prompts Lepidus to try to displace Octavian, highlighting divisions within second triumvirate

Agrippa (Augustus’ military second-in-command)

• defeats sextus pompey

• His victory encourages lepidus to try to displace octavian, highlighting divisions within trimuvirate

Cleopatra

• Queen of Egypt

• Personal relationship with mark antony

• Octavian wants sole power and is offended by Mark antony dishonoring him and his sister, starts propaganda campaign

• Defeated at Actium and kills self

• Egypt and its wealth seized by Rome, Octavian now sole ruler

“First Settlement”

• Octavian formally hands back authority to the senate

• granted title of Augustus (related to respect, reverence)

• Showing efforts at power-sharing

• presents self as continuing efforts to restore republic, not as beginning a new system

• Attempt at maintaining stability

• Begins Augustan Era

Augustus

• Title granted to Octavian via the first settlement

• Related to honor, respect, reverence

• Intended to symbolize break with Octavian’s violent past

• Peace, stability restored

“Second Settlement”

• Augustus formally resigns the consulship

• Augustus receives greater imperium and tribune power

  • tribunician power: power to convene the senate, veto legislation, and control elections.

  • greater imperium: power to command armies and govern provinces

• Powers granted for life

• Augustus parades tribune power, not greater imperium because it is more modest and protects ordinary citizens

• Makes Augustus the most powerful man in Rome, while ostensibly upholding republican values

• Augustus now has legal basis for permanent power

Pater Patriae (father of the fatherland)

• A title of honor, meaning 'Father of the Country' or 'Father of the Fatherland.'

• signifies that the individual was seen as a protector and benefactor of the Roman state.

• symbol of legitimacy

• solidifies his image as the restorer of the Republic and the guardian of Roman citizens.

Pax Augusta (Augustan Peace)

• Period of relative peace and stability in the Roman Empire

• Facilitated economic prosperity, infrastructure development, and flourishing of arts and literature.

• Propaganda: Augustus portrayed himself as the bringer of peace and order, which helped legitimize his rule.

Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace)

• Serves as a symbol of peace, prosperity, and the Augustan Golden Age.

• Bottom: leaves, fertility of Rome under Augustus

• Top: Historical and Myth

  • Procession of imperial family

  • First depiction of children in Greek or Roman monuments, promote family because of declining birthrates

  • Relief of Pax

    • Peace and prosperity under Augustus

• Reinforces image of restorer of the republic

Res Gestae Divi Augustae (Deeds of the Divine Augustus)

• Augustus' self-written account of his accomplishments, crafted to promote his image and legacy.

• Lists his public works, military victories, and honors received, emphasizing his contributions to Rome.

• displayed throughout the Empire to ensure widespread dissemination.

• Presents Augustus as a benevolent ruler who restored peace and prosperity

• Offers a selective and idealized portrayal of Augustus' life

Domus Augusta (household/family of Augustus)

• Symbolized center of power and influence

• Family portrayed as gods

• Emphasis on conquered roman enemies and triumph

Augustan succession

• Sources of Augustus’ authority:

  • Formal:

    • Originally: extraordinary powers

    • Powers from holding public offices

    • imperium

  • Informal:

    • Fear of continued war, desire for peace

    • no memory of another functional system

  • None could be legally inherited

• Romans want to avoid a power struggle after Augustus’ death

• Tiberius succeeds him

Julio-Claudian dynasty

• Starts with succession of Tiberius

• Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula Claudius, Nero

• Power now theoretically passed in succession, not by vote

• Rely on connection to Augustus for legitimacy

• Decisive end to republic

Princeps

• Bland, informal title meaning “leading figure”

• Now, only one princeps

  • New phase: Principate

• Attempt to legitimize imperial power through existing institutions

• Symbol of Augustus’ authority and legitimacy

Principate

• First phase of the Roman Empire

• Retains traditional offices and institutions such as senate

• Real authority rests with the princeps

• Emphasizes civil rather than military power

• Caesar’s assassination revealed dangers of shaming or humiliating peers

Primus inter pares (first among equals)

• Suggests that emperor was not an absolute ruler, rather the most respected and influential citizen

• Attempt at maintaining facade of republic

• Emphasizes civil rather than military power

• Caesar’s assassination revealed dangers of shaming or humiliating peers

maius imperium (greater imperium)

• greater imperium: power to command armies and govern provinces

• Power granted for life

• Augustus parades tribune power, not greater imperium because it is more modest and protects ordinary citizens

• Makes Augustus the most powerful man in Rome, while ostensibly upholding republican values

• Augustus now has legal basis for permanent power

Tiberius

• Succeeds Augustus as emperor

• Reign consumed by questions about legitimacy

• Uncertainty surrounding new system of government

• Augustus was right to worry about a power struggle after his death

• Orders offensive in Germany to stop soldier uprising, suggesting Rome’s customary use of external war to encourage internal harmony

Praetorian Guard, Praetorian Prefects

• They served as personal bodyguards, intelligence gatherers, and enforcers of the emperor's will.

• Gained significant political influence, often playing a decisive role in the succession of emperors.

• Praetorian Prefects were the commanders of the Praetorian Guard

  • They acted as the emperor's chief advisors, military strategists, and administrators.

• Tiberius’ distrust leads him to rely on Praetorian Guard

• Prominence of military basis of imperial power subverts value of civil consensus

Caligula/Gaius

• Begins reign as popular young emperor

• Tried to restore senatorial prestige and make himself accessible to public

• Panders to populace

• After serious illness, behavior becomes bizarre and tyrannical

Assassination of Caligula

• After serious illness, behavior becomes bizarre and tyrannical

• Megalomania and religious arrogance alienates many

• deficient military leadership

• assassinated by Praetorian Guard

Damnatio memoriae (condemnation of memory), “memory sanctions”

• Erasing a person from history by condemning their memory.

• Systematic destruction of images, erasure of names from inscriptions, and removal of honors and statues.

• Could apply to people who are already dead

• Motives:

  • Political opportunism: use the “clean slate” a new ruler could gain power

  • Erase enemies or political opponents

Claudius

• Was never expected to become emperor, elevation created questions

• Two versions of story:

  • Claudius is a dupe

  • Claudius is a conniving schemer

• Shared Augustus’ concern to expand empire, invades and annexes

• Senators and elites hate him

Agrippina (last wife of Claudius and mother of Nero)

• Schemed to marry Claudius

• Gains greater public visibility than any other woman

• Secured succession of son Nero by 53

Nero

• Prepared from an early age to be princeps

• Reign starts with promise and popularity, but descends into seemingly erratic and tyrannical behavior

• Cared more about the arts and showmanship than government and military

• Senate disowns him and declares him public enemy, nero kills self

• Julio-Claudian dynasty ends

Great fire of 64; persecution of Christians following great fire of 64

• Damaged much of Rome

• Nero appropriates much of the land to build immense golden house

• Proposes plan for rebuilding city that makes people who lost homes camp in his imperial gardens

• Makes Christians a scapegoat

  • Plan backfires because attacks and tortures provokes sympathy

Domus Aurea (Nero’s Golden House)

• Great fire of 64 damaged much of Rome

• Nero appropriates much of the land to build immense golden house

• Proposes plan for rebuilding city that makes people who lost homes camp in his imperial gardens

• Buried by successors

Civil wars of 68-69

• Nero’s neglect opens door for any commander with willing troops to bid for the principate

• Three guys have short reigns, followed by Vespasian who survives and continues to rule

• Reveals disunity of empire in general and of the troops

• Turmoil makes it clear that dynastic succession was unable to guarantee the best ruler

Galba, Vitellius, Otho

• First 3 emperors of year of the 4 emperors

• short-lived reigns

• Eventually defeated by Vespasian

• Conflict reveals disunity in troops and empire as a whole

Vespasian

• Last of the year of the four emperors

• establishes the Flavian dynasty'

• Successful general

  • used qualifications and prior experience to distinguish himself from the unpopular aspects of the Julio-Claudian dynasty

• Builds colosseum on site of Nero’s Domos Aurea

• Picture: Depicted as old and weathered to show experience and qualifications, not young and irresponsible like Julio-Claudian rulers

lex de imperio Vespadiani

• Law specifiying powers and rights of the emperor

• Earliest and starkest sign of the principate’s institutionalization

• Indicates continuing significance of popular support for the princeps and concern for governmental processes

• Emperor’s authority no longer centered on individual or on family

  • rather, powers justified by law, precedent

Flavian dynasty, Flavii

Jewish revolt / First Jewish war

• Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem

• Decimates Judaea’s population

• Furthers Jewish diaspora and contributes to distinction of Christians from Jews

Titus

• Largely continues father’s policies and approach to imperial power, but dies quickly

• In power for 1st Jewish role and Vesuvius

• Desire for smooth relationship with Rome’s elites

Domitian

• Quickly demands level of power and worship similar to Nero

• Titles himself Dominus et Deus

• Builds new imperial palace using public money

• Reasserts military character of the principate

dominus et deus (lord and god)

• Title Domitian gives to himself

  • Shatters any illusion that the princeps was first among equals

• Demanding immense power and worship

• Did not learn from Nero’s fate

Assassination of Domitian

• Paranoia turns him against senators and family

• Conspirators include his wife and Praetorian Guard

• Populace doesn’t care

• Senate imposes memory sanctions (damnatio memoriae)

  • Statues destroyed, recarved

  • Forum renamed

  • Nerva chosen by senate because he is old, experienced and hasn’t angered anyone yet

  • Picture: Frieze with Domitian’s head recut into Nerva

Nerva

• Nerva chosen by senate because he is old, experienced and hasn’t angered anyone yet

• Establishes Nerva-Antonine Dynasty

• Buys land for distribution to citizens who had none, especially in Rome

• Starts tradition of emperors adopting their successors by adopting Trajan and appointing him as next emperor

• Garners enough support for empire to survive Domitian’s assassination without civil war

“adoptive emperors”

• Nerva starts tradition of emperors adopting their successors by adopting Trajan and appointing him as next emperor

• Fictive kinships

the 5 good emperors

• Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius

• Represent high point of imperial stability and success

Trajan

• Popular and effective

  • respected by both army and senate

• Rose to prominence as military leader

  • Borders at greatest extent under Trajan

  • Several Trajanic military monuments from areas where he campaigned

• Building projects

  • forum and markets

Optimus Princeps

• Unique title granted to Trajan by senate

• Best Princeps

• Symbolizes popularity with senate

Dacian Wars

• Waged by Trajan

• Success encourages Trajan to further expansion

• Creation of province in Arabia further destabilizes area and leads to Parthian War

Forum of Trajan, Trajan’s Column

• Military victory momuments

• Forum of Trajan joins other imperial fora, extends complex and connects to Markets of Trajan

• Column commemorates Trajan’s campaigns against the Dacians

  • Paid for with spoils of the wars

• Picture: Relief from column showing Dacians kneeling to Trajan and his soldiers

  • Emphasizing role of military authority to the Principate

  • Aggressive military expansionism

Apollodorus of Damascus

• Architect of Column of Trajan

• Originally Trajan’s chief military engineer

Hadrian

• Married to Trajan’s niece and adopted after Trajan’s death

• Did not continue expanding empire like Trajan

  • Transition to consolidation and reinforcement

• Traveled extensively

  • Brings back new styles of art and architecture to Rome

Hadrian’s adoption of Antoninus Pius; Antoninus’ adoption of Marcus Aurelius & Lucius Verus

• Hadrian adopts Antoninus Pius and makes him adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus

  • co-rule for several years before Lucius Verus dies

  • Attempt to ensure stable transfer of power, avoid struggle for power/civil war

    • backup successor

• Marcus Aurelius succeeded by son Commodus, who is extremely unpopular and eventually assassinate

  • ends Nerva-Antonine dynasty

circuses, Circus Maximus; chariot racing

• Circus races at public expense

  • most famous is Circus Maximus in Rome

• Allows populace to express opinions to emperors and other officials

  • Interact between emperor and subject at races, emperors who did not attend were unpopular

panem et circenses (bread and circuses)

amphitheaters, Flavian amphitheater/Colosseum; gladiators, gladiatorial games

• Use of spectacles for social control and manipulation

  • Demonizing of gladiators and victims unifies spectators

• Bread and circuses

condemnation ad bestias (to the beasts)

• Events that pitted men against beasts

• people found guilty of capital crimes condemned to the beasts

• Roman liking of blood sports

• Demonizing of victims unifies spectators

  • tool of political control/manipulation

Antoninus Pius

• Hadrian’s successor

• Antonines rely heavily on links to predecessors in imperial messaging and portraiture

• Harmony between emperor and senate

• Stability and organization

• Power passed smoothly to Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus

Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus

• Co-rule for several years

• Depictions emphasize equal status as co-heirs/emperors

  • Attempt to avoid conflict between claimants and problems with deaths of heirs

  • Desire to depict stability and continuity

  • Picture: coin depicting Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as equals

Parthia, Parthians; Parthian Wars

• Fought primarily by Lucius Verus in the East

• Joint triumph with Marcus Aurelius

• Highlights deadlocked, evenly matched strength of the 2 empires

Commodus

• Marcus Aurelius’ son, raised as potential heir from a young age

• Joint Augustus with father, sole Augustus after his death

• Exploits power and is hated

• Criticized for abandoning military campaigns

• Concerned with personal gratification and that of the masses

• Self-presented as a god, Hercules

• instability leads to assassination, ends Nerva-Antonine dynasty

Severan dynasty

• Series of civil wars follows Commodus’ assassination

  • Conflicts end when general Septimius Severus takes control and has self adopted by Marcus Aurelius to establish legitimacy

• Caracalla takes over after his death, establishing Severan dynasty

Septimius Severus

• Army general

• Takes control and ends series of civil wars

• Has self posthumously adopted by Marcus Aurelius to establish legitimacy

• Popular with troops

Arch of Septimius Severus

• Commemorates defeat of Parthians

• Placement in Forum drew connections to Augustus through proximity to Augustus’ own Parthian arch

• Inscriptions mark dynastic ambitions

  • mentions Caracalla and Geta and depicts them in reliefs

    • Geta later erased

Julia Domna (wife of Septimius Severus and mother of Caracalla and Geta)

• Called “Mother of the Camps” by the military

  • Demonstrates personal ties of Septimius Severus to the military

Caracalla and Geta

• Sons of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna

• Caracalla takes over when father dies, marking beginning of Severan dynasty

• Caracalla extends Roman citizenship

• Caracalla has Geta assassinated

  • Removes his name and image from imperial monuments

• Caracalla eventually assassinated by his troops

Elagabalus/Heliogabalus

• Took throne young, didn’t hold strong control, and was murdered quickly

• Name derived from the son god of Emesa

• Disliked

Severus Alexander

• Took the throne young

• Did not hold strong control and was murdered quickly

• Reign was under a regent

• Respected the senate, but not the military

• Military thought he was a coward for attempting to negotiate for peace

  • assassinate him

Roman jurists, jurisprudence

• Jurisprudence: the science of what is right and wrong

  • “what a good man would do”

• Private law becomes more liberal and humane in first 250 years of principate

• Legal reasoning

• Jurists express belief in basic human equality

honestiores vs. humiliores

• honestiores: “more honorable”

  • senators, equestrians, veterans, town councilors, well-educated

• humiliores: “more lowly”

  • everyone else. most of population

• Harsher legal penalties for humiliores

Constitutio Antoniniana

• Issued by Caracalla, expands Roman citizenship

  • through honorable discharge from auxiliary forces

  • through enlistment in roman legions

  • through direct grant by emperor

early Christianity

• Becomes more problematic as it becomes more distinct from judaism

• hostility because Christians refuse to assist the community in a civil or military capacity

Judaism

libelli (certificates)

• mid-third century, all Romans must sacrifice to Roman gods

  • receive a certificate (libelli) to record compliance

    • To Christians, recorded their renunciation of Chrstianity

• Thousands of Christians killed (mobs or execution)

martyrs, martyrdom

• People who witnessed their faith through public refusal to deny it

• bravery, unshakable faith

• encouraged self-perception of christians as beleagured, suffering minority

converts, conversion

• Conversion: deliberate public acts of religious commitment that acknowledged psychological change

• revealed doctrine, initiation, dedicated priesthood, afterlife, community on earth

  • Similarities to mystery religions

• Greater openness to converts than mystery religions, proselytizing, monotheism, emphasis on scripture, stress on belief and behavior

  • differences from mystery religions

3rd century crisis

not on exam but study picture

Picture:

• civil wars, short reigns of soldier emperors, chaos

• characterized by instability and fracture in the empire

• territorial control shrank; breakaway provinces and rival empires emerge

• Rome losing control of its vast empire

soldier-emperors

• series of emperors who ruled for short times during third century

  • declared emperor by troops

• few major projects due to chaotic nature of reigns

• increased importance of physical force to secure power

• produced lots of art with distinctive and recognizable portraits

  • prioritized replacing images of predecessors

barbarian invasions

Persia, Sassanian Persians, Sassanians (Sasanians/Sassanids)

Palmyra, Palmyrene Empire; Zenobia

debasement, debased coinage

Aurelian, Aurelianic walls

• Only major building project during 3rd century crisis/reigns of the soldier emperors

• Built around Rome

• encompasses more territory than earlier Republican walls

• signifies fear over increasing barbarian invasions

Sol Invictus (the Unconquerable Sun god), cult of Sol Invictus

Diocletian

• ends period of soldier emperors

• names one of his generals, Maximian, his presumptive heir (Caesar)

• raises Maximian to co-emperor (Augusti)

• Splits administration of empire into east and west halves, one Augustus and one Caesar in each

  • tetrarchy

• augustus of the east

Maximian

• Diocletian’s general

• Named presumptive heir (caesar)

• elevated to co-emperor (Augustus)

• augustus of the west

tetrarchy, tetrarchs

• Rule by 4

• new requirements for imperial ideology and iconography

  • intended message shifts from centralized absolute power to equal partnership and balanced division

• Motifs:

  • shared power/authority, equals

  • lack of individuality in portraiture, interchangeable depictions

  • communication through symbols: iconogrpahic language for power

    • purple, orbs/globes, swords with eagle hilts

  • continued divine support for imperial power

    • Jupiter linked to all 4

• Geographical shift of power:

  • center of empire shifts east of rome

Galerius

• Caesar of the east

  • augustus is diocletian

Constantius

• former caesar of the west, now elevated to augustus of the west

• dies, troops elevate his son constantine

Augusti and Caesares

• Diocletian splits administration of empire into east and west halves, one Augustus and one Caesar in each

  • tetrarchy

• shared power, equality

• Picture: Augustus portrayed as older than caesar, but all four are still equals

• attempt to maintain stability and order across empire by splitting it in two but not allowing one man to have control over either half

Diocletian’s abdication

• Sick, retires, forces Maximian to abdicate as well

• civil wars break out again

Maxentius

• son of maximian

• conflict between him and Constantine for western throne

• defeated by constantine at battle of milvian bridge

Constantine

• Son of contantius

• conflict between him and Maxentius for western throne

• defeats maxentius at battle of milvian bridge

• issues edict of milan