Review Guide for Exam 2 (ESCI 1101)

Primary Lifting Mechanisms

Convective Lifting - air near the ground becomes warmer than the surrounding air, causing it to rise.

Orographic Lifting - large air masses are forced to rise by a topographic barrier.

Frontal Lifting - cold air forces warmer air to rise.

Airmasses

Large bodies of air that are relatively homogenous in temperature and humidity. They are classified by their location (maritime or continental) and by the climate of the place where they form.

Cold Fronts

Intense precipitation, steepness, strong vertical cloud development, cloud types include cumulus, nimbostratus, cumulonimbus, stratocumulus.

Warm Fronts

Mostly drizzle, gentle slope, weaker vertical uplift, cloud types include stratus, altostratus, cirrostratus, cirrus.

Midlatitude Storms

Frontal zones of strong temperature contrasts, consisting of a cold front, a warm front, and three sectors (cold, warm, and cool).

Occluded Front

A plane where a cold front overtakes a warm front, signifies incoming precipitation and the formation of cumulonimbus and nimbostratus clouds.

Updrafts

Upward-moving air currents that characterize a storm's early development.

Downdrafts

Downward-moving air currents that contain cold, dense air and spread out at the ground as a cold air wedge.

Lightning

Natural electrical discharge within a thunderstorm, positive lightning originates from the top layer of the cloud, negative lightning originates from the bottom layer.

Thunder

Sound produced by lightning rapidly heating up the air around it and causing a shockwave.

Thunderstorm Days

The Florida peninsula, Gulf Coast, and mountains of New Mexico see the most thunderstorm days per year due to moisture and water vapor from surrounding water bodies.

Thunderstorm Development

Development stage (updraft), mature stage (rain, lightning, downdraft), dissipating stage (weakens and breaks apart).

Tornado Development

Rapidly rotating columns of air that extend from a storm, related to temperature differences across the edge of downdraft air wrapping around the mesocyclone.

Peak Tornado Formation

April to June, with May having the most recorded tornadoes.

EF Scale

Enhanced Fujita Scale, measures tornado damage and estimated wind speeds.

Hurricane Development

Requires warm water, evaporation, formation of warm air, gathering of clouds, and wind speeds reaching 74 mph.

Eye of the Storm

Calm, clear, warm area at the center of a hurricane.

Eyewall and Rainbands

Eyewall is the area of strongest winds and heavy rain surrounding the eye, rainbands are spiral bands of clouds with rain showers and thunderstorms extending from the eye wall.

Tropical System Naming

When sustained winds reach 39-74 mph.

Storm Surge

Rise in sea level and major flooding caused by intense winds of a hurricane.

Peak Hurricane Months

June to November, warmest ocean water and weak vertical wind shear.

Climate

Conditions of the atmosphere at a particular location over a long period of time.

Climate Region

Region defined by the similarity of climatic conditions within its boundaries.

Components of Climate

Temperature and precipitation levels.

Koppen Climate Classification

Classifies climates based on vegetation, temperature, and precipitation data.

Tropical Climates

Extend from the equator to about 15-25 degrees latitude, high temperatures, and high precipitation.

Dry Climates

Very dry regions with potential evaporation and transpiration exceeding precipitation.

Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates

Warm and humid summers, mild winters, dominated by mid-latitude cyclones.

Moist Continental Mid-Latitude Climates

Warm to cool summers, cold winters, severe winters.

Polar Climates

Year-round cold temperatures, found on northern coastal areas.

Highlands

Climates resulting from elevation changes in mountainous terrain.

Tundra, Icecap, and Icesheet Climates

Cold climates with varying degrees of ice cover.

Desert and Steppe

Defined by low precipitation levels, desert being extremely dry and steppe having slightly more precipitation.

Climate Change

Changes in long-term weather patterns and average temperatures.

Volcanic Eruption and Planetary Temperatures

Volcanic eruptions can temporarily cool the planet due to the release of ash and aerosols into the atmosphere.

Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

Natural and man-made processes that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to an increase in global temperatures.

Global Temperature Trends

Over the last century, global temperatures have been increasing.

Pathways for Surface Water

Infiltr

Base flow

The portion of streamflow sustained between precipitation events.

Perennial Streams

Streams that flow at least 90 percent of the time and have a well-defined channel.

Ephemeral Streams

Streams that flow for a short time after an extreme storm and don't stem from a well-defined channel.

Sources of stream water

Runoff from precipitation and groundwater discharge from aquifers.

Solution

Minerals dissolved in water and carried by the stream.

Suspended

Small solids carried by turbulence in moving air or water.

Saltation

Transportation of particles too large to be carried in suspension by running water or wind.

Braided rivers

Stream channels composed of multiple subchannels that split, rejoin, and shift position.

Straight rivers

Stream channels that flow in a relatively straight line, often along fault zones or steep gradients.

Meandering rivers

Rivers with sinuous banks that curve back and forth in sweeping bends.

Headwaters

Upper course of a river where it flows in contact with bedrock.

Middle section

Moderate gradient, smooth channel bed, floodplain, closer to base level.

Lower stream course

Minimal gradient, proximity to base level.

River delta

Depositional landform where a stream flows into a standing body of water.

Floodplains

Low-lying areas adjacent to a river, formed mainly of river sediments and subject to flooding.

Inner core

Innermost layer of the Earth, primarily composed of iron and nickel, solid.

Outer core

Layer of molten iron liquified by the Earth's heat.

Mantle

Uppermost portion of the core, composed of silicate rocks, iron, and magnesium.

Aesthenosphere

Thick plastic solid layer that instigates tectonic plate movement in response to convection.

Lithosphere

Rigid, brittle layer of the Earth that makes up the crust and uppermost mantle.

Crust

Relatively thin, low-density surface layer of the Earth.

Continental Crust

Less dense, thicker portion of the Earth's crust.

Oceanic Crust

Denser, thinner basaltic portion of the Earth's crust.

Earth's core

Innermost portion of the Earth's interior, extremely hot, primarily composed of iron and nickel.

Density difference between crusts

Oceanic crust is denser but thinner than continental crust.

Sea floor spreading

Movement of oceanic crust away from midoceanic ridges, forming new crust at the ridges and subducting old crust at ocean margins.

Subduction

Process where oceanic crust is forced downward into the mantle beneath a lighter continental plate.

Igneous rocks

Formed when molten rock matter cools and solidifies.

Sedimentary rocks

Formed by compaction and cementation of rock fragments, organic remains, or chemical precipitates.

Metamorphic rocks

Formed by heat and pressure changing a pre-existing rock, typically harder and more compact.

Tectonic plate

Large slab of solid rock that makes up part of Earth's lithosphere and moves over the mantle.

Divergent boundaries

Zones where tectonic plates are moving away from each other, can result in ridges.

Convergent boundaries

Areas where two tectonic plates collide/converge, often zones of subduction.

Transform boundaries

Zones where two tectonic plates slide past each other, causing earthquakes.

Hot spot

Mass of hot molten rock material at a fixed location beneath a lithospheric plate.

Rock cycle

Continuous process of rock formation, transformation, and erosion.

Geomorphology

Study of the physical features of the Earth's surface and their relation to geological structures.

Weathering

Breakdown of rock material at and near the Earth's surface.

Erosion

Process through which earthen materials are worn away and transported by natural forces.

Mass wasting

Gravity-induced downslope movement of rock material without the assistance of a geomorphic agent.

Slopes

Friction, gravity, and direction of movement affect slope stability.

Physical weathering

Mechanical disintegration of rocks into smaller clasts.

Chemical weathering

Decomposition of rock through chemical reactions, forming new minerals.

Biological weathering

Disintegration and decomposition of rock influenced by organisms.

Unloading

Physical weathering process where removal of overlying weight leads to rock expansion and breakage.

Exfoliation

Successive removal of outer rock sheets.

Freeze-Thaw

Breaking apart of rock by the expansive force of water freezing in cracks.

Carbonation

Chemical reaction of carbon dioxide